Foot Of Mountain Research Articles

PIEDMONT GENTLE SLOPES IN THE KANTÔ DISTRICT

At the foot of Mt. Ogi and Tsukuba in the Kanto District (Fig. 1), conspicuous development of gentle slopes is known, which have been vaguely considered as pediments, or pediment-like slopes. Gentle slopes are located at the foot of a fault scarp (Mt. Ogi), at the foot of an old volcano (Mt. Myogi) or at the foot of a granite mountain (Mt. Tsukuba). It is the purpose of this study to assure if they are pediments or not. The geology of Mt. Ogi consists from north to south of Kobotoke group (Cretaceous), Katsuragawa formation (mid-Miocene) and Misaka group (Oligocene). Ogiyama fault runs between the former two. On the Katsuragawa formation gentle slopes develop with a longitudinal range of about 100 m. Trans-verse profile is almost level at the upper limit of the gentle slopes, and undulated at the lower limit. Tops of undulation consist of harder Misaka group. The escarpment behind the gentle slopes coincides with the Ogiyama fault scarp and this fact means that the gentle slopes were formed not by pedimentation but by rain wash and soil creep on the softer Katsuragawa formation during the course of slow elevation. Age the formation of the gentle slopes is concluded to be lower to uppermost Pleistocene. To the northeast of Mt. Myogi, gentle slopes develop on the Miocene bed and the escarpment behind the gentle slopes is the flank of an old volcano. Longitudinal range of the gentle slopes is about 300_??_1000m and the inclination is 5° _??_8°. Both the longitudinal and transverse profiles are undulated. There are talus deposits dropped from the escarpment. Formation of the gentle slopes occurred in middle Pleistocene. Around Mt. Tsukuba gentle slopes are found in the coarse crystallized granite area, which is sometimes covered with fine crystallized granite or hard rock. Longitudinal range of the gentle slopes is 500_??_1500m and the inclination is 7°_??_12° . The gentle slopes are veneered by strata of cobbles, boulders and coarse sands, but in these strata bedding and sorting are not remarkable. The gentle slopes were formed by the parallel retreat of escarpment due to weathering, gravitation and rainfall, and modified by sheet wash, The age of the formation of the gentle slopes is middle Pleistcene. Agreement on the origin of pediment is not yet obtained, and on the features of pediment there are many kinds of decription. For examples, the longitudinal profile of pediment is convex or concave; the escarpment end is straight or zigzag; and the transverse profile of escarpment end i s level, convex, concave or undulated. Picking up the common facts of all these pediments, the definition of pediments might be given as follows: the pediment is an erosional gentle slope with knickpoint at the foot of the escarpment behind, truncating the rock formations of the mountain ranges and developing continuously during the planation of mountain ranges. Thus, it is concluded that the gentle slopes around Mt. Tsukuba are genuine pediments and those of Mt. Ogi and Mt. Myogi can not be identified as pediments.

A New Method to Express The Suitability-of Building Site from View Point of Geology Topography and Soil Condition.

The selection of building site is the most important work for engineer in stage of planning. Resently many failures of building site occur at the foot of mountain and hill region.Most of them seem to be coused by inadequate condition of the site. When we select the building site, we usually examine rather empirically several factors such as geological topographical hydrological and soil condition.The project being comparatively small and limited, engineer is able to analize stable condition by appling of soil mechanics principle. But the area conserved having great extention and variety, we must treat many factors affecting the stability of the site as geology topography soil sight view, traffic condition etc.We have hitherto treated these factors empirically and fragmentally. Now in this paper we propose a new method to express these factors more rationally than before.The factors treated in this paper are limited in geological topographical and soil condition and they are replaced into a standard term suitability index which is calculated by soil mechanics principle.The suitability index being a function of soil and rock properties (c, φ) and gradient of the slope (θ) means possible maximum width of even site plane that is formed by cutting and banking of soil or rock.Thus the factors discussed fragmentally before are comparatively synthetic expressed. This method however is not available for exact analysis of stability of relatively small and limited site because the stability of the site is affected considerably by another local minor factors.This method therefore is valuable as a standard to determine adequate site in primary stage of site planning.

Paleosols in Hokkaido

Hokkaido is divided to three soil regions, that is, the northern, cetnral and southern regions as shown in Fig. 1. But the brown forest soils with leached top horizon are widely distributed in the southern soil region where the occurrence of the podzolic soils could not be expected under the recent bio-climatic conditions. The sequence of the ultimate pH through the profiles of these soils is not only different from that of the podzol but also from the typical brown forest soils. But seeing that the values tend to rise towards the bottom horizons, it may be quite reasonable tosuppose that these soils passed through the podzolization. They might have been regenerated from the former podzolic soils which were formed in the Wurm glacial stage, to the equivalent of the brown forest soils, under the warmer climate during post-glacial stage.On the other hand, there are red coloured soils on the coastal terraces and gentle slopes at mountain foot especially in northern Hokkaido. The profile characteristics of these soils are quite similar to those of the subtropical red soils. But they could hardly be expected to be formed under the present sub-boreal bio-climatic conditions in this region. According to the modes of occurrence of these soils with special references to the topography of the coastal terraces, they should be regarded as the relict red soils which were formed during a warmer stage in the Pleistocene, probably in the Riss-Wurm interglacial stage. It is quite interesting from pedogenetical point of view that such discordant paleosols as them are well preserved in situ even in the present sub-boreal bio-climatic conditions.

On the Water Sources in Hatano Basin

The floor of Hatano basin, Kanagawa prefecture is consisted of higher plain for the most part excepting the lower plain on which the city of Hatano is located. The most of the basin is used as cultivated fields. It is said that the prevalence of the use of local and less elaborate water-works in this basin is the highest of the nation. The water is mostly supplied from valleystreams and springs at the foot of mountain, around the foot of mountains around the basin.The writer thinks that these phenomena are due to the fact that the rivers in the basin are exhausted owing to underground run-off, making the level of the groundwater very low.In search of the sources of the water for the farm irrigations in the north-western part of the basin, the writer surveyed the topograraphy, geology using the electrical prospector at about 100 stations. In the years 1957-58, writer made survey of the river-streams, underground flow, groundwater and their relations to the topography and geology.I came to the conclusion that the water sources in this area are summarized as follows……river-streams↑↓(underground flow water )↓ groundwaterThe topography of the basin surfaces are not so simple. The geomorphological processes of the rivers in this basin are diversified, and different from a river to another. The stratigraphy of this basin is classified as follows ……1. the fluvial sand and gravel bed2. the upper loam bed3. the older fluvial sand and gravel bed (I)4. the lower loam bed5. the older fluvial sand and gravel bed (II)The aqifers in this basin basin are the gravels beds of (3) and (5).In the south-eastern part of the basin, the author we could see pretty many flowing wells and concluded that the aquifer for these wells is the layer (3). The gravel bed at the springs along the foot of hills resembles closely to the layer (5) seen from the electric resistance. According to the past records, the topographical unconformity along the Muro-Kawa to the south of the basin is attributed to a faulting. The outcrops of the of the layer (5) along the foot-hills were caused by the fault-movement. It is presumed that there are gravel beds with abundant water under the basin judging from the geological circumstances of the widespread sedimentation around Kanto Plain.Recently in the basin plain, some industrial estates by the famous companies have been planned and some factories have started to make use of the confined water (each well: -70-80m deep, pumping volume 2000t/day.)

THE EXPANSION OF COAL PRODUCTION IN THE JÔBAN COAL FIELD

The modern coal mining in the Joban coal field was started on the exposed areas of the coal field near the foot of the Abukuma mountains in 1883. The volume of coal produced has been increased since, and 4.29 million tons of coal, about 8 per cent of the total coal production in Japan, was produced in 1958 (Fig. 3). Though the number of collieries is 71, the large collieries producing over 300 thousand tons in one year are only 3. The majority of collieries produces under 50 thousand tons in one year. The pattern of the mining activity in the field is roughly shown in Fig. 1. The results of the study are as follows. 1) The geologic conditions of the coal measures are also responsible for the pattern of the coal mining in the Joban coal field. The writer divided the field into four districts and made a comparative study of the natural conditions for mining-coal reserve, quality of coal and depth of coal series etc.-in each district (Tab. 1). It reveals that the best natural conditions for mining exist in the northern district of Iwaki and the Taga district, The southern district of Iwaki and the Futaba district are very inferior to the former districts. 2) In consequence, the two centers of the coal production in the Joban coal field are the northern district of Iwaki and the Taga district. These two districts produce about 91 per cent of the total coal production in the field. The collieries producing over 100 thousand tons of coal in one year are all concentrated inn this two districts. 3) In the coal field, especially in the northern district of Iwaki, almost all of the concessions which hold the abundant coal seams are monopolized by the Joban Coal Mining Co. Ltd., the largest coal mining company in the Joban coal field. The company has also increased the output of coal in the Taga district since 1935, and today, the company produces over 50 par cent of the total coal production in the field. 4) The central areas of coal mining-the northern district of Iwaki and the Taga district-were formed in the period 1897-1919 and in this time almost all of the main collieries were opened. From the beginning the Iwaki Coal Mining Co. and Iriyama Coal Mining Co. were the two largest producers. They were merged to be the Joban Coal Mining Co. in 1944. 5) In the area of the abundant coal seams such as the northern district of Iwaki and Taga districts, the centralization of coal production to the large collieries resulted in making the many small collieries subordinate to the large collieries. Because, in these two districts the small collieries are compelled to locate in the small concessions to mine the thin coal seams, and these concessions were already mined out the thick coal seams by the large collieries and were left as the areas which came to the end of mining. Moreover, the areas of the poor coal seams such as the southern district of Iwaki and the Futaba district are where many small collieries are operated. Such conditions are shown in Fig. 5.

近代村落成体前における入会林野の解体 (その2)

River sediment at the foot of mountains makes rolling terrace with thick gravel beds and poor soil. These areas were neglected by farmers as waste land or were used as common forests. But when reclamation became active in the late Shogunate, such poor land also was expected to be reclaimed. The following example shows the process of reclamation of such areas.Kikyogahara, located on the south side of Matsumoto Basin, Nagano Prefecture, is a big compound fan made of sediments of two rivers. Nine villges are distributed on the terminal of this alluvial terrace, along the rivers and at the foot of the mountain. In the Shogunate Era, most parts of the fan were covered with common forest kept by these nine villages.Reclamation of the area began early in the Shogunate. The feudal authorities of Matsumoto ordered reclamation but farmers who used Kikyogahara as hay and grass fertilizer source rejected the order. The authorities at that time perceived that farmers reclaimed secretly the areas adjoing village settlements. The authorities ordered that reclamation was to be carried out openly and offered land tax reduction as an inducement. But such secret reclamation was just temporary cultivation by farmers in order to alleviate food shortages, because fertility was too poor to permit cultivation as permanent fields. Such fields were returned frequently to grassland. Howevere, when developed, the authorities would not allow them to exist as no tax fields. Farmers were always afraid of tax on such poor unstable fields. From the early to the middle past of the Shogunate, tactical negotiation between the authorities and farmers continued.After the Meiji Restoration the reclamation was obliged to be planned again under the new circumstances. The feudal restrictions were abolished and viewpoints toward reclamation of common forests were revised, village farmers began to consider use of the common forest for mulberry fields or orchards rather than for paddy fields. Thus the forest was divided and distributed to each village concerned, and central parts of the forest, wilder areas, also were given to imigrants from other districts. About the same time mixed fertilizer was introduced and the value of the common forest was not the same as before except forests for house-fuel.The dissolution of common forests in the Shogunate Era took the form of reclamation, although it was always restrained by grass fertilizer shortages. Another big obstacle which made reclamation difficult were feudal restrictions on land use and choice of occupation. In any case of dissolution, forestry was out of consideration. Even if fish and other mixed fertilizers bccame gradually popular, it was difficult for poor farmers to purchase them. So grass fertilizer was still important.Such a process was a conspicuous characteristic in the dissolution of common forest in the Shogunate Era.

RIVER TERRACES AND EARTH MOVEMENT ALONG THE RIVER TOYO

The River Toyo flows into Atsumi Bay, taking the northeast-southwest direction along the median line which is one of the most important tectonic lines in Japan. There is a considerable difference in the topography and geology between the areas of the right side (Inner Zone) and the left (Outer Zone) of the river (Figs. 1 and 2). The authors surveyed the terrace topography and deposits along the River Tokyo in order to make clear the process of the formation of terrace plains and the earth movement in this region. The main results are as follows: 1) The terrace plains of this region are classified into three kinds: the upper, the middle and the lower. The upper terraces are distributed widely on the right side of the river and are correlated with the surface of Takashihara. The middle terraces are most remarkable and also widely distributed on the right side of the river. The lower terraces are subdivided into two. The lower terraces I distributed locally are intermediate terraces between the middle terraces and the lower terraces II which gradually change to the present flood plain (Figs. 3 and 4). In the both terraces, the upper and the middle, in the lower course from Shinshiro City their distribution and altitudes are different from those in the upper course area, and the gradients of the former terrace plains are steeper than those of the latter's (Tab.1). So the upper and the middle terrace plains situated in the lower course have the characteristics of fan-like topography. 2) The origins of the terrace deposits are classified into two groups (Tab. 2). The one is the terrace gravels which usually contain the liparite gravels derived from the uppermost area, and are transported by the River Toyo itself. The other is the fanglomerates which consist of the angular gravels of mica schist or mica gneiss constituting the Inner Zone mountain land, and seems to be transported by the small tributaries. The distribution of the fanglomerates coincides with that of the fan-like topography above mentioned (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). 3) Small faults cutting the bedrock are observed at the mountain foot of the Inner Zone (Fig. 5). Strikes of the fault plains are mostly NE-SW, namely, it resembles to the direction of the steep scarp and the arrangement of kernbuts and kerncols. Judging from the data mentioned above, the authors have reached tentative conclusions concerning the process of the formation of the terrace plains and the earth movement as follows: It seems that during the formation of the upper terrace plain the deposition of the River Toyo took place more actively than during the middle and lower terrace plain formation. The small tributaries from the Inner Zone mountain land also deposited the great amount of the fanglomerates following the deposition of the upper terrace gravels. It means that there was a tendency to elevate more rapidly in the Inner Zone than in the Outer Zone area. Such a tendency of the earth movement is also observed during the middle terrace plain formation, but the amount of this is smaller than the case of the upper. However, this tendency is not observed during the lower terrace plain formation. Moreover, even in the Inner Zone area, this tendency is clear at the lower course from Shinshiro City. The longitudinal profile of each terrace plain is astringed toward the lower course. Consequently, it is considered that the amount of the upheaval movement connected with the formation of the terrace scarp is greater in the upper course area than in the lower course in each stage. Such a tendency is contrary with that of the earth movement observed in the region in Tempakuhara which is older than the terrace plains in question.

Some Considerations of the Recent Faulting in the Western Fringe of the Fukushima Basin

The afore-mentioned observations and their explanations will be summarized as follows:1. Three faults can be recognized along the western fringe of the Fukushima Basin, and under all of them there are fault scarps displaced in and after the Diluvium.2. The Kori fault is a thrust one. At the period of the most recent displacement, narrow troughs caused by depression, or shallow hollows as a result of reverse dipping were formed under the fault bench.3. The Kari and Daiyama faults cross each other in the Iizaka. area. For this reason, each activity of these faults, that is, the up-thrust of the Kori fault block and the subsidence of the fallen side of the Daiyama fault made the area dip toward the basin with the result that the river terraces were formed there.4. The arrangement and forms of the new alluvial fans under the western mountain foot were decided by the modes of faulting. That is to say, under the northern half of the Daiyama fault scarp the fans developed to the south-east, and at the eastern foot of Azuma Volcanic Group, that is, under its southern half, -they shifted to the north. These phenomena were due to the mode of the subsidence of this basin. Although the decisive conclusion must be avoided because the concrete data have not yet been obtained, the geological structure is likely to give a powerful suggestion to the mode of the subsidence.5. At the eastern foot of Azuma Volcanic Group, the form and the materials of the fans did not necessarily depend upon only the displacement of the fault there. In this area they were more sensitive to the volcanic activity in the drainage area of each rivers constructing the fans.6. In the central part of the basin there was a large lake during the period from the higher surface to the middle (the old fan), and was deposited the thick hed of not only lake deposits but also the voclanic ash from the western volcanoes. For this reason ground-water is prevented from percolating down in this part of the basin, where drinking water is provided with by the artensian water contained in the basal gravel bed of the higher surface. The lake gradually decreased in size, and at the period when the new fans were formed, it was retained only in the Nakayachi area.

Water-power Utilization during the Industrial Revolution in Japan

Generally speaking, in the pre- or early times of Industrial Revolution, water was employed as the principal power in almost every kind of industries. Especially in Japan, as it is a mountainous and rainy country, there were a large number of suitable spots for the exploitation of water-power in these days.At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Japan, water was the most important motive power. For example, in 1885 (before Sino-Japanese War), the number of factories* which were equipped with water wheel was 364, while only 53 factories were equipped with steam engine.After Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars (1894-5 and 1904-5), the modernization of Japanese industries have progressed very much. Instead of water wheels, modern motive powers, such as steam engines, oil engines or electric motors began to be more widely used in factories. In 1909**, the number of steam engines became 5, 319, with 197, 335HP, and that of electric motors was 2, 559, with 37, 617HP. In the same year, 2, 390 water wheels were still used, but the total power of these was only 10, 038HP.At that time, about half of total water wheels, i.e. 1, 128 wheels, belonged to silk manufacture, which had rural and traditional character but one of the most important industries in these days. Fig. 1 shows, how much degree water wheels were used in silk manufacturing in 1909 (unit of numbers written in Fig. 1 is 10%). As shown in Fig. 1, in Chubu District, especially in Nagano Pref., water was well utilized as the motive power of filature.It might be said that other traditional industries inclined to depend on water-power. For example, almost all of cotton-spinning factories, which was modern and whose technique was imported from abroad, depended much more on steamengine, whereas, cotton-spinning, which started in Japan, deppended on water. And it was reeling and twisting of silk thread or silk-weaving that depended more on water than on steam engine even in 1909.In Fig. 3, cities, towns and villages, which had more than 5 factories equipped with water wheels in 1909, are dotted.*** They might be centers of water utilization in Japan at the beginning of 20th century, because not registered small factories, in which water-power utilization was more diffused, might gathered there. Most of these centers situated at the foot of mountains, where water was rich to exploit for power. In some cases, factories were built in the place where water-power was available, but in many cases factories of traditional handicraft began to utilize water-power if it was available.NOTES*factories…limited whose capital were more than 1000 yen in this case.**In this year, list of factories and statistics of industry were published. They are the most detailed list and statistics in these days, because they show factories which had more than 5 workmen.***legend-F (silk manufacturing) RC (rice cleaning)W (reeling of silk thread) St (starch manufacture)CS (cotton spinning) P (pottery)T (twisting of silk or cotton thread) Sa (sawing)SW (silk weaving) M (metal goods industry)CW (cotton weaving)

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCALE OF LAND USE AND UTILIZATION OF LABOR IN THE AGRICULTURE OF THE MINOWAR EGION, INA VALLEY, NAGANO PREFECTURE

In order to observe the relationship between the scale of agricultural land use and the utilization of farm labour, the writer studied the Minowa Region of the Ina Valley in Nagano Prefecture. In this area, the, amount of agricu-ltural land per farm household and that per labour are by section interrela-ted. According to the scale of agricultural land use, this region is divided into four parts 1. Large scale. part. Sections of the upper and middle of the fan west of the Tenryu River. 2. Medium scale part. Sections of the edge of. the terrace cliff west of the Tenryu River. 3. Sub-medium scale part. Southern section of the terrace east. of the Tenryu River. 4. Small scale part. Northern sections of the flood plain and terrace east of the Tenryu River. The writer studied this region for purposes of detailed observation by traversing a section across the Tenryu from east to west and reached the following conclusions Type of agricultural land use The larger the scale of land use, the poorer its natural condition and the smaller the ratio of paddy field. In this type cultivation requires much labor with small area of paddy limitting the fields, mulberry farms prevail and are especially large in scales 1. In scales 4, there are Many orchards (apple) that require even more labor. Intensity of labor utilization-Jn terms of growing crops, the smaller the scale of the farm, the more intensive. the application of labor. This is partially due to the fact that small scale farms are generally associated. with more productive soils. Means of production The use of cattle in cultivation is common in scales 1, 2 and 4. Mechanization is high in scales 2 and 4 but lower at the foot of both mountains in scales 1 and 3 due to the absence of electric cable facilitiesfor motive power. As a method of carrying goods, ox, carts and wagons are extensively, used in scales 1 and -2, backs of cattle in scale 3, And backs of men in scale 4. Generally, the smaller the scale of fanning, the more. primitive the means of carrying. This fact is largely related to terrain conditions, the w id thof farm roads, the degree of slope, and the distance from roads to farms. Under scale 1, extensive areas are left uncultivated although farmers have been trying to utilize more agricultural labor by, enlarging the amount of land under cultivation. In scale 4, they. have been. accomplishing the same purpose by more intensiv5 and rational land. utilization; it appe ars that this tendency will be strengthened in. the future.

DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIES IN JAPAN

The purpose of the present report is to analyze the distribution of industries in Japan, to set up the inbustrial districts, and to grasp the characteristics of those districts.Data were obtained from “A Nation-wide Survey of Factories, 1950, ” compiled by the International Trade and Industry Ministry, and “A Survey of Factories, 1950, ” compiled by the International Trade and Industry Ministry, and “A Survey of Factories, 1909, ” compiled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. Factories employing more than 5 workers were numbered and classified according to the following weights: factories employing 5-49 workers………1, and factories employing 50-99 worers ………3, factories employing 100-199 workers………6, factories employing 200-499 workers………12, factories employing 500-999 workers………25, and factories employing more than 1, 000 workers………50.(1) Distribution of industries (Fig. 1). Indicated by the oblique lines are areas with considerably dense distribntibution of industries. Areas with especially dense distribution of indnstries are shown by black. The distribution is influenced by topography, communication, labor, and markets. For example, the relation between railroads and the distribution of industries is shown in Fig. 2. In agricultural districts the distribution is dense in the mountain foot areas. In many cases this is due to superfluous labor.(2) Representative industries (Fig. 3). Chief industries in the big 4 industrial districts of Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and Northern Kyushu are those of maceine and metal. Areas of these industries are surrounded by the areas of fiber industry. Industries in the agricultural districts are represented by those of food and timber. Food industry tends to be geographically closer to market places than timber industry. In particular, in the outskirts of the big 4 industrial districts, there are areas of food industries.(3) Density of isfribuion (Fig. 4). Hawmany kinds of industries does each city, town, or village have? Itcan be theoretically surmised that many industries concentrate in places where conditions advantageous to them exist. Accordingly, from the density of distribution alone, it will be possible to ascertain to a certain extent the state of industrialization. Generally viewed, the area including sources of electricity in central Japan and the coast of the Inland Sea have high density of distribution of industries, beside the big 4 industrial districts.(4) Increase and decrease (Fig. 5) The industrial revolution in Japan was completed by World War I. In Fig. 5 are compared the increase and decrease of industries both in 1909 and in 1950.(5) Management of indnstries (Fig. 6). Whether industry is managed as modern industry or as home industry is shown in Fig. 6.(6) Industrial districts (Fig. 7). In Fig. 7 industrial districts are set up, taking into account all factors above mentioned. ‘A’ is the most advanced district; ‘B, ’ ‘C, ’ ‘D, ’ and ‘E’ are the districtcts less advanced than ‘A’.(7) Industrial cities (Fig. 8). Cities marked with black are noted for machine, metal and chemical industries; cities marked wi thoblique lines are noted for fiber industry; and cities marked with white for timber, food, and chinaware industries.

Laconia

The village of Kalývia Sokhás lies against the base of one of the massive foothills in which Taygetus falls to the plain three or four miles to the south of Sparta (Plate 26, 1). It is bounded by two rivers which flow down in deep clefts from the mountain shelf. The hillside above rises steeply to a summit which is girt with cliffs on all but the west side and cannot be much less than four thousand feet above sea level; this von Prott believed to be the peak of Taleton. Its summit is crowned by the ruins of a mediaeval castle which was undoubtedly built as a stronghold to overlook the Spartan plain; the only dateable object found there, a sherd of elaborate incised ware, indicates occupation at the time when the Byzantines were in possession of Mystra. The location of the other sites mentioned by Pausanias in this region remains obscure, but fortunately that of the Spartan Eleusinion has not been in doubt since von Prott discovered a cache of inscriptions at the ruined church of H. Sophia in the village of Kalývia Sokhás. In 1910 Dawkins dug trenches at the foot of the slope immediately above the village and recovered a fragment of a stele relating to the cult of the goddesses and pieces of inscribed tiles from the sanctuary. The abundance of water in the southern ravine led von Prott to conclude that the old town of Bryseai with its cult of Dionysus also lay at Kalývia Sokhás; but no traces of urban settlement have come to light at the village, and the name rather suggests copious springs such as issue from the mountain foot at Kefalári a mile to the north where ancient blocks are to be seen in the fields.

STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE OF THE OAK HILL SUCCESSION IN VERMONT

North of the Winooski River, Vermont, the Oak Hill succession occupies the region between the eastern margin of the Champlain Lowland and the western foot of the Green Mountains. The lithologic units are traceable into southern Quebec, and some are traceable southward into west-central Vermont. Lower and middle Cambrian ages have been assigned to all units. The strata below the Gilman quartzite are tentatively correlated with the Mendon series in the Rutland-Brandon region. All units above the Gilman have stratigraphic equivalents in the adjoining Rosenberg succession. The earliest recorded differential downwarping of the local geosynclinal area immediately preceded the beginning of deposition of the Pinnacle sediments. The distribution of the shaly, sandy, and conglomeratic facies of the Pinnacle and West Sutton formations indicate a western source for the sediments and also that the sea was encroaching westward. The Gilman quartzite marks the first occurrence of reworked sands; reworked sediments formed practically all of the elastics sediments thereafter. A prominent anticlinorium occupies much of the southern part of the area. Northward it fades into a westward-dipping homocline. The western margin of the succession is formed in most places by a series of thrust faults, which may be continuous. The Oak Hill thrust, considered the western boundary of the succession in southern Quebec, has not been recognized in Vermont. The strata were strongly folded before thrusting; the thrusts are subsequent shear thrusts. Several klippen, related genetically to the thrusts, form prominent hills west of the western margin of the succession.

The Earthquake at San Juan, January 15, 1944

HORACIO J. HARRINGTON, professor of geology at the University of Buenos Aires, has described some of the effects of this earthquake ("El Sismo de San Juan del 15 de enero de 1944", Cienciae Investigación, Jan. 1945). The shock occurred at 19h. 46m. 29s. without any previous warning and attained a maximum intensity in a few seconds, ending suddenly about 15 seconds after the first shock. The first shock was from below upwards, and in a few seconds afterwards a new shock took place in a horizontal direction and of an undulatory nature, from west to east. When the tremors had ceased, some 90 per cent of the buildings in San Juan had been totally or partially destroyed. The depth of focus was 14 km., with a probable error of 3 km., and the epicentre included the zone extending north from San Juan to Chimbas and Albardón. The intensity of the San Juan earthquake was ix on Sieberg's scale, and so was not excessive; nevertheless the destruction was very much greater than would have been expected. Out of a total population of seventy to eighty thousand, about eight thousand were killed and twelve thousand injured; the disproportion between the intensity of the earthquake and the destruction effected is obvious. The loss of life in the San Juan earthquake was due to the buildings being made with unbaked bricks of clay; these should be avoided in reconstruction. In addition, many of the cities of the country are built at the foot of high mountain ranges, and zones of fracture render their existence more or less precarious.

The Tali District of Western Yunnan

N the far south-west of China, among the tangled mountains of western Yunnan, there is a long blue lake lying at the foot of snow-topped mountains, between them a strip of fertile rice land. This is the district of Tali, just north of the Burma Road. The road actually passes through Siakwan, which is the subsidiary township of the Tali district, and a short branch connects the city of Tali 10 miles farther up the lake. The topographical features of this region are sharply defined: the plain, narrow and flat but intensely fertile and closely cultivated for rice; the lake, Erh Hai, which forms the eastern boundary of the district; and lastly the massive wall of the Ts'ang Shan range, one of the highest in Yunnan proper, which shuts off the plain from the west. Beyond the lake to the east and south there are other lower ranges which are in fact the watersheds of the Yangtze, Red river (Yuan Kiang), and Mekong. The Red river, which flows out at Haiphong in Indo-China, actually rises in these southern ranges. The Erh Hai, the Ear Lake, fed by the northern Erh river, drains by way of the southern lower Erh into the Yangpi, which is a tributary of the Mekong, and the Tali district is thus within the basin of the latter river. This is so unexpected, in view of the configuration of the ranges in this area, that many maps still show Erh Hai as draining into the Red river. When the height of Ts'ang Shan to the west compared with the relative insignificance of the ranges east of the lake is considered this would indeed appear to be the natural course of the river. In fact the lower Erh breaks out round the southern end of the Ts'ang Shan range through a very narrow gorge called Lung Wei Kuan, the Dragon's Tail Pass, where the stream at one point is actually bridged by a huge boulder wedged between cliffs. This gap has recently been widened to permit the construction of the Burma Road, which follows the line of this gorge and thus avoids a crossing of the Ts'ang Shan range. These mountains, although they attain 14,000 feet, and are thus the highest for many miles in any direction, are not a watershed of any importance. They divide the Erh Hai from the Yangpi river. Across the lake the low eastern mountain is the watershed of the Yangtze and Mekong, one of the main divides in south-eastern Asia. I do not know whether the geological cause of this anomaly has been ascertained, but an untrained observer may remark that whereas all the ranges east and south of the lake are limestone formations, Ts'ang Shan, alone among the mountains east of the Salween, is granite. The exceptionally precipitous character of its slopes, particularly on the western side, suggests that it repre? sents an upheaval of underlying rock which has broken through the lime? stone cover of the Yunnan plateau. The character of the forest which covers the upper part of the mountain is also different from that found on the nearest mountain of comparable height on the eastern side of the lake, the 11,000-foot Chi Tsu Shan, which is covered with chestnut woods but has few rhodo-

The Sample Plot as a Method of Quantitative Analysis of Chaparral Vegetation in Southern California

The vegetation of any watershed is a vital factor in regulation of streamflow and prevention of excessive erosion (Ayres, '36). This is particularly true in southern California where large populations live at the foot of steep mountains whose streams yield the bulk of the available water supply for the valley communities. The region is subject to floods when occasional storms having periods of prolonged high rainfall intensities occur in the precipitous watersheds. These floods are particularly disastrous when fire has denuded the watersheds. The magnitude of the water conservation and flood control problem led the United States Forest Service to set aside for watershed management research an area of 17,000 acres including the entire drainages of Big Dalton and San Dimas Canyons, tributaries of the San Gabriel River in eastern Los Angeles County. This area has been named the San Dimas Experimental Forest (Kraebel and Sinclair, '40). Early in the research program of the San Dimas Experimental Forest the importance of accurate knowledge of the floristic composition was recognized in order to evaluate differences between watersheds as well as to determine the

Pilularia in Texas

A thick stand of Pilularia, most probably Pilularia americana A. Br., has been found in the flat, gravelly bed of a shallow creek just off the southeast foot of Granite Mountain, about one mile west of Marble Falls in the Llano Uplift region of Central Texas. Apparently this is the first station that has been found in the State. The species has for years been known to exist in the West Coast region from California to Oregon and in western Arkansas and central Georgia. The scarcity of known stations does not necessarily mean that Pilularia is so limited in its distribution and

Catskill facies of New York State

The Catskill facies of continental sediments consists principally of graywackes interbedded with conglomerates and of red sandstones and shales with a small percentage of green and dark shales and massive conglomerates. The Catskill sedimentation was introduced in early Hamilton times and represents a great series of alluvial-plain deposits laid down upon the land surface at the base of the re-elevated Taconic Mountains and grading into the sediments of an inland sea. The red shales are interpreted as flood-plain and deltaic subaerial topset beds into which the graywackes of the alluvial plain graded. Continental conditions of deposition were exaggerated as the Upper Devonian progressed, for the Katsberg beds in the east are increasingly conglomeratic. The Catskill deposits are characterized by the extreme angularity of the grains of the sandstones. The pebbles of the conglomerates, on the other hand, are well rounded. Barrell contended that the Catskill sediments were derived in the main from the western limits of the old Appalachian landmass, thus placing the source rocks to the southeast and east in an area now covered by Connecticut coastal plain deposits. The present author disagrees with this viewpoint and claims that the sediments had their origin in a near-by source to the north and east. The Taconic Mountain area is the most likely source, for it is situated in a suitable location and contains metamorphic rocks and quartz veins of similar character to the grains making up the graywackes and conglomerates. Moreover, sufficient evidence from structural considerations can be adduced to support strongly the hypothesis that orogenic forces were active in the Taconic area during Middle to Late Devonian. In early Hamilton times the first orogenic movements began. These raised western New England above the shallow early Devonian seas and started the cycle of continental deposits. Short, rapid streams carried large amounts of detritus from the highlands and dumped their loads quickly on emerging upon a flat shore at the base of the mountains. Gradually an alluvial plain was built out and as the sea moved back, due both to further uplift and to the deposition of alluvial materials, an intermediate zone of flood-plain and delta materials developed between the alluvial plain and the sea. In this intermediate zone were deposited the red sediments that gave rise to the red beds. As time progressed, the shore line varied as did the depositional zones. Periods of quiescence or aridity moved the red-bed zone closer to the foot of the mountains, while renewed uplift increased the area covered by the coarse, angular deposits. Orogenic movements continued throughout the Upper Devonian with increasing vigor. There is no evidence to indicate an arid climate during the Middle and Upper Devonian, and the abundance of plant remains in the graywackes suggests a temperate climate with moderate but seasonal rainfall. . . .

The Papago Villages of Arizona and Sonora; Types and Sites

dams on all important Sierra Nevada rivers, and transportation of water by canal around the southern end of San Joaquin Valley from east to west. The estimated cost of ultimate major units of the State Water Plan in the Great Central Valley alone is $683,900,000. The Plan will probably be adopted piece by piece as demand justifies. The Papago Villages of Arizona and Sonora; Types and Sites j. w. HOOVER State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona The Papago are a tribe of Indians numbering about 6000, who occupy the desert area along the Mexican boundary in south central Arizona. In this isolated desert environment, the Papago has been peculiarly immune from aggression. So the basic pattern of geographic adjustment has •remained much the same,; yet we may recognize four periods. The first was prehistoric, antedating the appearance of the white man, and therefore a phase of the maize and squash cultural complex common to the Southwest. In the second period of adjustment, that of Spanish influence, Catholicism, livestock and wheat were introduced. The third period dated from the Gadsen purchase. Americans caine to open mines and to establish stock ranches especially in the late sixties and seventies. The fourth period , within the present century, is a continuation of American influence. Hitherto American influence was passive , now it has become active in the stimulation of Americanization processes . The village of Pacinimo may be taken as expressing the general average of Papago villages. The Indian population numbers 171, and the white population 12. Two main groups of adobe and wattle houses or huts are at the north end of the village and represent two families, in the sense only that the people are all inter-related . At the south end of the village is the Catholic chapel and school, a small trading post, and a few Indian houses. Between the north and south ends of the village is the government well with the wind-mill and storage tanks. A large charco for the catchment and storage of surface runoff skirts the southeast edge of the village .. There is no other structural arrangement and nothing even suggesting streets. The site of Pacinimo is typical of villages and settlements dependent upon fields, located where the lower bahada and creosote bush zone gives way to the valley flats with salt bush and mesquite. Here the washes emerge from the arroyos and the water may be spread over the flats. Two types of village sites developed in earlier times; those located with reference to tillable plots. The former were reserve villages located at the foot of mountains or in their foothills . In late years deep wells have been put at nearly all the villages located at the fields, and so the reserve villages have shrunk, but in most cases a few families remain to take care of cattle. There are no large well built prehistoric structures in the Papago country, such as the Casa Grande on the Gila and the Pueblo ruins in the Salt River valley. However there are a number of fortified hills, with defense walls and rock terraces which were used for house sites. Excepting as the houses were partly walled up, their construction, as today, was very ephemeral. Such sites, known as "trincheras de cerros" are most numerous in the valleys of northern Sonora. Six such fortified hills are known in the (28) southeastern more favored part of the Arizona Papago reservation. Their builders were certainly on the defensive . Were they a prehistoric people driven out by invading tribes of Piman stock, or were they ancestors to the present Papago, harassed for a time by invaders whom they successfully resisted or assimilated? If the Papago are descendent from the Hohokam , or canal builders of the Salt and Gila plains, then the trincheras must be regarded as prehistoric Papago settlements. The invaders may have been Pueblo people from the north, the Salada people of Gladwin and Haury, or possibly they were the product of early Apache invasion. Soil Conservation Instruction in Common Schools and Colleges J. WRIGHT BAYLOR* Anacortes, Washington Educators have long recognized the fact that grade school training may play a vital part in determining a student's outlook upon...

A Geographical Investigation of the water-Supply of Saku-Basin, Sinano Province, Japan

The problems dealt . with in this paper cover water-supply in generally, namely irrigation water, . drinking water, household water (other than for drinking), etc. The geomorphological division of Saku-Basin consists of three regions, Northern, Central, and Southern. Each region shows its own, special characters, as will be described later. There is no question that geomorphological relief influences in many cases the network of waterways, but other natural factors connected, such as precipitation and.geological conditions, must he cited as two great factors. Owing to these main factors, the network of waterways in the Northern Region (Asama Mountain Foot Region) is comparatively sparse; so is the quantity of canalwatergenerally. On the other hand, the Southern Region (Fan of the Tikuma River) has abundant water, which fact affects human activities in this region in many ways. From the viewpoint of cultural landscape influenced by the distribution of iririgation canals, the Northern Region may be divided into three classes of two types. The Southern Region consists almost wholly of paddy-fields on account of flatness of land surface and the abundance of irrigation water. Compared with the Southern Region, the Central Region, which shows a clustered distributicn of mulberry fields, forms an uriirrigated area owing to the special features of the land. This is the most characteristic feature in this whole region. The special irrigation in winter time, which is performed also in the Southern Region, is divided into three kinds; the “Huyugake” (winter irrigation), “Harugake” (spring irrigation, beginning in March), and “Gomigake” (irrigation with sewage water in winter). These various forms of irrigation show the regional characteristics. These conditions impress us forcibly with the profound connection between man's activities and water. By his activities with water as his chief instrument, cultural landscape is altering the surface features of the earth in. innumerable ways. In these respects we find the regional characters in the north and south, and in the east and. west clearly marked. A) Characteristic of north and south. 1. Northern Region (Asama Mountain Foot Region)…………………N a. Clustered form of paddy-field region. ………………………n1, n2 b. De'ndritical form of paddy-field region. …………………………n3 2. Southern Region (Tikuma River Fan Region). ……………………S 3. Central Region.………………………………………………………C a. Unirrigated Region……Clustered mulberry field region.………C2 b. Paddy-field Region.…………………………………………………c3 B) Characteristic of East and West. Considered from the viewpoint of landscape of the East and West, we cannot recognize any remarkable variation in the Northern Region, althoughh there are some in the Southern Region. 1. Southern Region.………………………………………………………S a. East side region of the Tikuma River……Non-carp-breeding region, “Non-Harugake” region.…………………………………s1