Foot-and-mouth Disease Outbreaks Research Articles

Molecular detection, phylogenetic analysis and genetic diversity of recently isolated foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype A African topotype,\xa0Genotype IV

BackgroundSurveillance for circulating emerging diseases of economic importance has a major role in the rapid response to major pathogen outbreaks. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is one of the significant endemic viruses in Egypt. FMDV is periodically investigated for monitoring evolution and emergence of new variants. The genetic characterization of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype A responsible for recent outbreaks of FMD in Egypt was determined.MethodsSamples were collected from different locations and virus isolation was performed using BHK-21 cells. Viral RNA was extracted and samples were screened for FMDV using real-time RT-PCR. DNA sequence analysis was performed and computational and bioinformatics analyses were used to determine the substitution rates and phylogenetic relationship.ResultsSequence and phylogenetic analyses of full-length 1D region of FMDV samples collected from different governorates in 2020 showed close similarity to Egyptian FMDV strains from serotype A-African topotype-G-IV with genetic variation of 6.5%. Recently isolated FMDV strains showed high genetic variations from locally used vaccine strains in the major antigenic sites of VP1 region.ConclusionsAlthough, efforts made by the veterinary authorities to implement an effective mass vaccination plan, the recently detected FMDV strains in this study could not be subtyped using the FMDV primers routinely used for molecular serotyping. These dissimilarities raise the alarm for reconsideration of the FMDV isolates used in vaccine manufacture. Clearly close monitoring of FMD in Egypt is urgently required to define the risks of future outbreaks and to ensure appropriate control measures against FMD major outbreaks.

A Five-Year Retrospective Study of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Southern Africa, 2014 to 2018.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDv), like other ribonucleic acid (RNA) genome viruses, has a tendency to mutate rapidly. As such, available vaccines may not confer enough cross-protection against incursion of new lineages and sublineages. This paper is a retrospective study to determine the topotypes/lineages that caused previous FMD outbreaks in 6 southern African countries and the efficacy of the current vaccines to protect cattle against them. A total of 453 bovine epithelial tissue samples from 33 FMD outbreaks that occurred in these countries from 2014 to 2018 were investigated for the presence of FMDv. The genetic diversity of the identified Southern African Type (SAT)-FMD viruses was determined by comparing sequences from outbreaks and historical prototype sequences. Of the 453 samples investigated, 176 were positive for four FMDv serotypes. Out of the 176 FMD positive cases there were 105 SAT2 samples, 32 SAT1 samples, 21 SAT3 samples, and 18 serotype O samples. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the SATs VP1 gene sequences into previously observed topotypes in southern Africa. SAT1 viruses were from topotypes I and III, SAT2 viruses belonged to topotypes I, II, III, and IV, and SAT3 viruses were of topotypes I and II. Vaccine matching studies on the field FMDv isolates produced r1-values greater than or equal to 0.3 for the three SAT serotypes. This suggests that there is no significant antigenic difference between current SAT FMD vaccine strains and the circulating SAT serotypes. Therefore, the vaccines are still fit-purpose for the control FMD in the region. The study did not identify incursion of any new lineages/topotypes of FMD into the sampled southern African countries.

Subdistrict-Level Reproductive Number for Foot and Mouth Disease in Cattle in Northern Thailand.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an important contagious transboundary disease that causes a significant economic loss for several countries. The FMD virus (FMDV) can spread very rapidly by direct and indirect transmission among susceptible animals. The complexity and magnitude of FMDV transmission at the initial stages of the epidemic can be expressed by the basic reproductive number (R0), and furthermore, control strategies can be assessed by the estimation of the effective reproductive number. In this study, we aimed to describe FMD outbreaks among smallholder cattle farms by subdistricts in the northern Thailand and compute the effective reproductive number for outbreaks caused by FMDV serotype O and overall serotypes, including serotype O, serotype A, and unidentified serotype, at the subdistrict level (Rsd) using an epidemic doubling time method. Field data of FMD outbreaks during 2015–2017 that affected 94 subdistricts in northern Thailand were assessed to estimate the Rsd. Results showed that 63.38% (90/142) of the FMD outbreak episodes in cattle were caused by FMDV serotype O. The average doubling time and the Rsd estimated of the outbreaks caused by FMDV serotype O and overall serotype were 2.80 and 4.67 months, and 1.06 and 1.04, respectively. Our results indicated that transmission of FMD in cattle at the subdistrict level in northern Thailand was not controlled (Rsd > 1), which indicates the endemicity of the disease in the region. Although control measures are in place, the results from this study highlighted the need for enhancing FMD monitoring and control strategies in northern Thailand.

Financial loss due to foot and mouth disease outbreak in cattle in some affected areas of Bangladesh

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a severe and highly contagious disease that causes immense financial losses due to mortality, reduced milk production, treatment cost of affected cattle, weight loss of fattening cattle and manpower loss for taking care of affected cattle, which occurs in Bangladesh almost every year. Outbreak of this disease causes financial loss to the farmers as well as the national economy of Bangladesh. Therefore, an attempt was made to assess the morbidity and mortality by FMD and to estimate financial loss incurred therein. For this study, data were collected from 850 affected households of Dhaka, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Khulna and Chattogram divisions of Bangladesh during July 2017 to June 2018 using a pre-tested interview schedule responding to the study objectives. In total, there were 4857 crossbred and 2138 native cattle in the affected household. The study revealed that the overall morbidity and mortality rates were 55.43% and 5.15%, respectively in crossbred cattle and 77.83% and 12.39%, respectively in native cattle and it differed significantly (p<0.01) with areas and category of cattle. Infection period for an FMD affected crossbred cattle were an average of 18.46±0.27 days and for native cattle were an average of 19.56±0.40 days. The total financial loss due to the FMD outbreak was calculated as Taka 53172067 (Tk. 53.17 million or US$ 0.63 million) for 850 affected households. The percentage of loss incurred was the highest for the death of affected cattle (63.47%) followed by veterinary cost (10.71%), weight loss of fattening cattle (10.68%), reduction in milk yield (9.17%) and manpower loss for taking care of affected cattle (5.98%). Based on this calculation the projected financial loss due to the FMD outbreak would be Taka 18856.96 crore (Tk. 188.57 billion or US$ 2.22 billion) per year in Bangladesh. Bang. J. Livs. Res. Vol. 27 (1&2), 2020: P. 82-94

Survey of emergency response plans for managing the movement of cattle during a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in North America.

To collect information from US state animal health officials (SAHOs) and beef feedlot managers and veterinarians regarding emergency response plans for movement of cattle in the event of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in North America. 36 SAHOs, 26 feedlot veterinarians, and 7 feedlot managers. 3 versions of an electronic questionnaire were created and distributed to SAHOs and US feedlot veterinarians and managers to gather information about planned or expected responses to an FMD outbreak that originated at 1 of 3 geographic locations (Mexico or Canada, a bordering state, or a nonbordering state). Descriptive data were reported. All respondents recognized that the risk of FMD transmission to livestock in their area or care increased as the outbreak got closer in proximity to their location. Most SAHOs indicated that they would immediately close their state's borders to livestock movement at the beginning of an FMD outbreak, particularly if the disease was identified in a bordering state. During an extended FMD outbreak, 29 of 36 (80.6%) SAHOs reported they would resume interstate movement of cattle under some conditions, including enhanced permitting, whereas feedlot veterinarians and managers commonly reported they would be willing to receive cattle from states where no FMD-infected animals were identified, regardless of permit requirements. Information gained from this survey can be used to inform disease modeling and preparedness efforts to facilitate business continuity of US beef feedlots in the event of an FMD outbreak in North America.

What Are the Human Resources Required to Control a Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreak in Austria?

Contingency planning allows veterinary authorities to prepare a rapid response in the event of a disease outbreak. A recently published foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) simulation study indicated concerns whether capacity was sufficient to control a potential FMD epidemic in Austria. The objectives of the study presented here were to estimate the human resources required to implement FMD control measures and to identify areas of the operational activities that could potentially delay successful control of the disease. The stochastic spatial simulation model EuFMDiS (The European Foot-and-Mouth Disease Spread Model) was used to simulate a potential FMD outbreak and its economic impact, including different control scenarios based on variations of culling, vaccination, and pre-emptive depopulation. In this context, the utilization of human resources was assessed based on the associated EuFMDiS output regarding the performance of operational activities. The assessments show that the number of personnel needed in an outbreak with a stamping-out policy would reach the peak at the end of the second week of control with a median of 540 (257–926) individuals, out of which 31% would be veterinarians. Approximately 58% of these human resources would be attributable to surveillance, followed by staff for cleaning and disinfection activities. Our analysis demonstrates that, of the operational activities, surveillance personnel were the largest factor influencing the magnitude of the outbreak. The aim of the assessment presented here is to assist veterinary authorities in the contingency planning of required human resources to respond effectively to an outbreak of animal diseases such as FMD.

Molecular Basis of Antigenic Drift in Serotype O Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses (2013-2018) from Southeast Asia.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals with serious economic consequences. FMD is endemic in Southeast Asia (SEA) and East Asia (EA) with the circulation of multiple serotypes, posing a threat to Australia and other FMD-free countries. Although vaccination is one of the most important control measures to prevent FMD outbreaks, the available vaccines may not be able to provide enough cross-protection against the FMD viruses (FMDVs) circulating in these countries due to the incursion of new lineages and sub-lineages as experienced in South Korea during 2010, a FMD-free country, when a new lineage of serotype O FMDV (Mya-98) spread to the country, resulting in devastating economic consequences. In this study, a total of 62 serotype O (2013–2018) viruses selected from SEA and EA countries were antigenically characterized by virus neutralization tests using three existing (O/HKN/6/83, O/IND/R2/75 and O/PanAsia-2) and one putative (O/MYA/2009) vaccine strains and full capsid sequencing. The Capsid sequence analysis revealed three topotypes, Cathay, SEA and Middle East-South Asia (ME-SA) of FMDVs circulating in the region. The vaccines used in this study showed a good match with the SEA and ME-SA viruses. However, none of the recently circulating Cathay topotype viruses were protected by any of the vaccine strains, including the existing Cathay topotype vaccine (O/HKN/6/83), indicating an antigenic drift and, also the urgency to monitor this topotype in the region and develop a new vaccine strain if necessary, although currently the presence of this topotype is mainly restricted to China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Vietnam. Further, the capsid sequences of these viruses were analyzed that identified several capsid amino acid substitutions involving neutralizing antigenic sites 1, 2 and 5, which either individually or together could underpin the observed antigenic drift.

A Monitoring System for Transboundary Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) considering the Demographic Characteristics in Gairo, Tanzania

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is present in many countries, including Tanzania. Gairo is among the districts that frequently face FMD. This study found that the current mechanism for communicating FMD in Gairo district suffers from a long chain of information flow that causes delay and insufficient information for FMD control. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the implementation of an information system named "Monitoring System for Transboundary Foot and Mouth Disease," developed purposely to provide a standard platform for communicating FMD between livestock keepers and other stakeholders in the district. The system enables timely sharing of FMD events such as outbreaks, precaution measures, clinical signs, and negative impacts using Short Message Services (SMS), Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD), and Voice Calls (robo-calls) through the mobile phones. Also, livestock keepers may report FMD outbreaks direct to the system using feature phones. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data and Microsoft Visio was used for drawing the system architecture and information flow diagram. Finally, the system was implemented using PHP hypertext processor, JQuery, HTML, JSON, JavaScript, MySQL, and Apache webserver.

Estimation of foot-and-mouth disease windborne transmission risk from USA beef feedlots

Windborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) requires specific epidemiological and meteorological conditions, thus modeling the risk of windborne spread involves integrating epidemiological and meteorological models. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential risk of windborne spread of FMD from an infected US feedlot using an integrated modeling approach, and to identify factors that determine this risk.To address this objective, we integrated a within-herd epidemiological model and an advanced atmospheric dispersion model, and calculated infection risk dependent on exposed herd size. A previously developed epidemiological model was used to simulate the spread of FMD through a typical U.S. feedlot, while the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) HYSPLIT atmospheric dispersion model, which has been validated for FMD modeling, was used to model virus dispersion. Infection risk for exposed herds was calculated as a binomial probability accounting for dose and exposed herd size. We modeled risk of windborne spread from a typical 4000 head feedlot in the U.S. state of Iowa (IA), and a typical 48,000 head feedlot in the U.S. state of Kansas (KS) during winter and summer seasons.The risk of windborne spread of FMD varied based on weather/season conditions, estimated average viral shedding rate per head, size of infected herd, and size of exposed herd. In the baseline Kansas scenario (KS/103/W), the median of the maximum daily risk of infecting a 1000-head exposed herd ranged from 58.16 % at 1 km to 0.78 % at 10 km (Table 4). In the baseline Iowa scenario (IA/103/W), the median of the maximum daily risk of infecting a 1000-head exposed herd ranged from 21.78 % at 1 km to 0.05 % at 10 km (Table 4).The minimum control area recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in an FMD outbreak is 10 km from the infected premise. Our results indicate that significant risk of windborne spread may extend beyond 10 km in certain situations. This is particularly a concern in areas where there are large feedlots in relatively close proximity, such as in southwestern Kansas. Our model may be useful as a research tool in the absence of an outbreak and may help direct surveillance and response efforts in the event of an outbreak.

U.S. Cattle Producer Adoption of Secure Beef Supply Plan Enhanced Biosecurity Practices and Foot-and-Mouth Disease Preparedness.

The prospect of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in U.S. livestock populations has motivated the development of the Secure Beef Supply (SBS) Plan, which includes a comprehensive list of enhanced biosecurity practices that aim to prevent FMD transmission and facilitate continuity of business during an outbreak. While FMD poses a serious threat to livestock production in the United States, little is known about producers' uptake of the enhanced biosecurity practices included in the SBS Plan. In this study, we benchmark adoption and feasibility-of-adoption perceptions for U.S. cattle producers. Our results show adoption of the 13 enhanced biosecurity practices is generally low. Especially concerning is the low adoption of the three strongly-recommended pre-outbreak practices—having a biosecurity manager, having a written operation-specific enhanced biosecurity plan, and having a line of separation. Adoption of the pre-outbreak practices is likely low because the benefits of adopting the practices depend on a low probability, uncertain event. That said, producers who have adopted the pre-outbreak practices are more likely to have higher feasibility ratings for the remaining enhanced biosecurity practices, suggesting that adoption of the strongly recommended practices is associated with adoption of all enhanced biosecurity during an FMD outbreak. Complementarity is examined and shows that adoption of the pre-outbreak practices coincides with adoption of the outbreak-specific practices. Taken together, our results suggest that adoption of the strongly recommended pre-outbreak practices could help facilitate a quicker and more effective U.S. cattle industry response to an FMD outbreak in the United States.

Improving foot-and-mouth disease control through the evaluation of goat movement patterns within the FMD protection zone of South Africa

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a transboundary animal disease that has a major impact on livestock production, regional and international trade and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in endemic settings. Many livestock diseases are transmitted through direct contact between animals, and thus between herds and flocks through animal movements. In this study, we described the pattern of goat movements among smallholder farmers within a communal farming area in South Africa. A cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 116 respondents, and separate 13 focus group discussions employing participatory mapping and semi-structured interviews were conducted among smallholder farmers. Overall, 22% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 16 – 31) of questionnaire respondents indicated moving new animals into their holdings during the previous 12 months while 56% (95% CI: 47 – 65) reported moving animals out of the holdings during the same timeframe. A total of 134 participants attended the focus group discussions with 68% (91/134) being male and 32% (43/134) female. Data from the study reported 37 nodes and 78 ties with an overall network density of 0.059 (SD 0.2) across the study area. Four locations within the (former) FMD-free zone of the country had connections with movement of goats from the study area. Furthermore, 60% (95% CI: 51 – 69) of farmers were ignorant of the need to obtain official veterinary movement permits for goats. These animal movements put the country at risk of future FMD outbreaks within the free zone. We recommend that the relevant authorities implement risk-based control measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

Short communication: preliminary observations on the serum levels of HSP70 and its correlation with serum cortisol, thyroid hormones, and acute-phase protein concentration in cattle naturally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus

The study aimed to explore the serum levels of HSP70 and identify its possible association with serum cortisol, thyroid hormones, and acute-phase protein concentrations in cattle naturally infected with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. After the FMD outbreak in an organized dairy cattle farm in India, blood samples were obtained from clinically infected (n = 40) and apparently healthy (n = 30) animals. Samples were processed and tested by an in-house DIVA assay for confirmation of FMD infection. Serum was analyzed forHSP70, cortisol, T4, T3, haptoglobin, and serum amyloid A by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HSP70 concentrations were significantly higher in the serum of clinically infected cattle (p < 0.01) than the healthy group. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the elevated serum levels of HSP70 under infectious diseases of bovines. Cortisol (p < 0.05), haptoglobin (p < 0.001), and serum amyloid A (p < 0.05) concentrations also markedly increased in the diseased animals; however, no differences (p > 0.05) were found in T4 and T3 levels between healthy and infected cattle. Elevated HSP70 concentration correlated positively with high cortisol (p < 0.05) and haptoglobin (p < 0.001) levels suggesting an essential link between these acute events during clinical infectious phase of FMD.

Identification of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Virus From Recently Outbreak Crossbred Cattle In Rajbari District of Bangladesh

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a devastating viral disease and endemic in nature in Bangladesh that causes huge economical losses. The present research work was aimed to determine the prevalence of FMD outbreaks and molecular detection of FMDV serotypes by uRT-PCR and gsRT-PCR test, respectively from crossbred cattle in the Rajbari district of Bangladesh during the period from January to June 2018. A total of 16 tongue epithelial samples were collected from clinically FMD suspected 2 to 3 years old crossbred cattle. 14 samples were positive by uRT-PCR. The detection rate of FMDV by uRT-PCR was 87.50%. Then uRT-PCR positive samples were serotype by gsRT-PCR. Serotype based prevalence of FMDV was 42.86%, 100%, 21.43% and 21.43% in O serotype, Asia-1 serotype, A serotype and mixed infection with Asia-1 and A, respectively. Considering the age, the prevalence of confirmed FMD outbreak was 42.86%, 35.71% and 21.43% at the age of 2, 2.5 and 3 years, respectively. Serotype A, O and Asia-1 is circulated in Rajbari district and required trivalent vaccine for prevention and control of FMD in that area. SAARC J. Agric., 19(1): 201-210 (2021)

Investigation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Dairy Cattle from Kageshwari and Shankharapur Municipalities, of Kathmandu, Nepal and Associated Risk Factors from March to April 2020

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Nepal and significantly impacts the livelihood of farmers, national economy, and trade of Nepal. However, outbreak investigations are not frequently conducted, and there have been limited studies to understand the associated risk factors. A case-control study was performed in dairy cattle farms of Shankharapur and Kageshwari Municipalities, Kathmandu from March to April 2020 to describe the outbreak and identify the risk factors associated with FMD. There were 31 case farms, while 62 farms were selected as control farms (1:2). The information from case and control farms was collected by semi-structured questionnaire survey through field visits and observations. The univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were performed. The farm-level prevalence of FMD was 25.2% (n=31/123). Among the FMD affected farms, the proportion of positive farms in Shankharapur (61.3% (19/31)) was significantly higher than Kageshwori (38.7% (12/31)). The final multivariable logistic regression analysis identified four variables: cattle purchased within 14 days (OR=12.9; CI=2.4-69.5), milk market distance less than two kilometers from the farm (OR=32.7; CI=5.8-186.3), sharing of the bull from other farms for natural insemination (OR=5.7; CI=1.2-26.8), and no vaccination against FMD in the past six months (OR=19.1; CI=2.0-186.2) as significant risk factors for the occurrence of FMD. This study suggests farmers vaccinate their dairy cattle with FMD vaccine as per the vaccination schedule suggested by the veterinarians, practice quarantine measures when new animals are introduced to their farms, practice biosecurity measures in their farms, and do not use bulls from areas where there are ongoing FMD outbreaks.

Spatial distribution of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in South Africa (2005-2016).

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a transboundary animal disease that has negative socioeconomic consequences including impacts on food security. In South Africa, FMD outbreaks in communal farming communities cause major livestock and human livelihood concerns; they raise apprehensions about the effectiveness of FMD control measures within the FMD protection areas. This study aimed to identify high-risk areas for FMD outbreaks at the human/domestic animal/wildlife interface of South Africa. Cuzick-Edwards tests and Kulldorff scan statistics were used to detect spatial autocorrelation and spatial-temporal clusters of FMD outbreaks for the years 2005-2016.Four high-risk clusters were identified and the spatial distribution of outbreaks in cattle were closer to game reserve fences and consistent with wildlife contacts as a main contributor of FMD occurrence. Strategic allocation of resources, focused control measures, and cooperation between the affected provinces are recommended to reduce future outbreaks. Further research is necessary to design cost-effective control strategies for FMD.

Use of Protein Pegylation to Prolong the Antiviral Effect of IFN Against FMDV

Interferons (IFNs) are considered the first line of defense against viral diseases. Due to their ability to modulate immune responses, they have become an attractive therapeutic option to control virus infections. In fact, like many other viruses, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), the most contagious pathogen of cloven-hoofed animals, is highly sensitive to the action of IFNs. Previous studies demonstrated that type I, II, and III IFNs, expressed using a replication defective human adenovirus 5 (Ad5) vector, can effectively block FMDV replication in vitro and can protect animals when challenged 1 day after Ad5-IFN treatment, in some cases providing sterile immunity. Rapidly spreading foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is currently controlled with vaccination, although development of a protective adaptive immune response takes 5–7 days. Therefore, an optimal strategy to control FMD outbreaks is to block virus replication and spread through sustained IFN activity while the vaccine-stimulated adaptive immune response is developed. Challenges with methods of delivery and/or with the relative short IFN protein half-life in vivo, have halted the development of such approach to effectively control FMD in the animal host. One strategy to chemically improve drug pharmacodynamics is the use of pegylation. In this proof-of-concept study, we demonstrate that pegylated recombinant porcine (po)IFNα displays strong and long-lasting antiviral activity against FMDV in vitro and in vivo, completely protecting swine against FMD for at least five days after a single dose. These results highlight the potential of this biotherapeutics to use in combination with vaccines to fully control FMD in the field.

A Proposed Information System for Communicating Foot-and-Mouth Disease Events among Livestock Stakeholders in Gairo District, Morogoro Region, Tanzania

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is present in many countries globally, including Tanzania, especially Gairo district. The data shows that 78% of livestock keepers in Gairo district had already observed FMD infection in their cattle, and the pastoral communities were mostly affected. Currently, vaccination is the main tool for controlling FMD because there are no therapeutic intervention tools. Therefore, effective communication among livestock stakeholders can be used as an essential tool of preparedness for the disease’s impact. This study had two specific objectives: (i) to explore the challenges of communicating FMD events among livestock keepers and other livestock stakeholders in Gairo district and (ii) to propose an information system for sharing FMD events among the livestock stakeholders in Gairo district. The study found that there was a delay when communicating FMD events in Gairo district due to the long chain of information flow. Therefore, the system aims to reduce the communication chain by allowing livestock keepers to report disease outbreaks directly to the system. Livestock keepers may also access FMD precaution measures, negative impacts, clinical signs transmission ways, and current outbreaks directly from the system using Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD), Short Message Services (SMS), robocalls, and feature phones. The system also provides a common platform for sharing FMD outbreaks data and events to other stakeholders based on the system’s privileges. In this study, a closed-ended interview using a questionnaire was used for data collection. The PHP hypertext processor, jQuery, HTML, JSON, JavaScript, Apache web server, and MySQL database were used for developing the system.

Ovarian activity in crossbred Thai native does during naturally occurring foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus infection.

This study aimed to compare the follicular dynamics in goats during naturally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMD) subjected to induced ovulations, and after disease recovery, crossbred Thai native does were synchronized with CIDR for 14 days, and then PGF2α and PMSG were administered on the day following CIDR removal. The ovarian activity was determined by transrectal ultrasonography. Clinical signs (fever, anorexia, lameness, and foot lesion) were observed on day 12 post-estrus (day 0, day of expected estrus). The study was carried out for 2 periods: FMD outbreak (day 0-day 21) and FMD recovery (day 63-day 84). Infected does were classified into two groups: (I) does without (n = 5) and (II) does with clinical signs (n = 5). The results showed that during FMD outbreak, the number of follicles/waves and number of follicles > 5 mm in ovulatory follicle wave of group II were lower than those of group I and those of its own group after FMD recovery (P<0.05). Higher in follicular regression rate were found in group II compared to group I in the does with 3 follicular waves during FMD outbreak (P<0.05). Moreover, during FMD outbreak, the does had lower number of follicles > 5 mm and longer day of emergence and day of largest follicles in ovulatory follicle wave than of those after FMD recovery. This observation demonstrated that FMD impaired folliculogenesis in goats, and the ovarian activity could be restored about 1 month after disease recovery.

Incursion of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Serotype O East Africa Topotype -3 (O/EA-3) in Nigeria

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic transboundary animal disease that affects livestock health across most of sub-Saharan Africa. Since the first official report of FMD in Nigeria in 1924, serotypes O, A, SAT 1 and SAT 2 have been documented within the country. Molecular epidemiology has been used to trace the origin of FMD outbreaks in the case of animal movement, inter-species transmissions and trans-continental introductions. Phylogenetic analyses of VP1 nucleotide sequences of the twelve isolates (n=12) provide evidence for the presence of type O/EAST AFRICA 3 (EA-3) in Nigeria. The epidemiological situation of FMD in Nigeria and other West African countries is further complicated by the emergence of the O/EA-3 lineage that is causing new outbreaks in the region in addition to the West Africa (WA) topotype that has been known to be in circulation in Nigeria and other parts of West African and Central African regions. These recent development in west and central Africa, indicates the dynamic and complex nature of FMD epidemiology in the region and this is not un-connected to the nomadism in the region. In addition the un-restricted animal movement across the porous border in the region in search of pasture and water for their animal has contributed to the spread of diseases across the region. From the results the phylogenetic analysis of the O/EA-3 has close identity and was closely related to O/EA-3 from the 2009 outbreak in Sudan. Therefore, based on these findings a sustained surveillance is required to yet understand the epidemiology of FMD in West and Central Africa that will inform the type of vaccine and target areas in other to control the disease. The need to restrict animal movement across the border should be put in place and where necessary all animals that must move from one point to another must have proper evidence of vaccine certification before it should be allow access into the area. Finally for effective FMD control, regional vaccination and surveillance should be advocated and it should be backed by law. The need to have FMD vaccination at national as well as regional FMD control policy is strongly advocate for effective FMD control in Nigeria and across the regions.&#x0D; Key words: Topotype, West African; FMD and Nigeria

Therapeutic and Prophylactic Potential of FMD Virus-specific Polyvalent Immunoglobulins during an FMD Outbreak in Cattle

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically devastating disease of cloven-hoofed animals worldwide. In the present study the therapeutic and prophylactic potential of polyclonal, polyvalent FMD virus-specific bovine antibodies has been investigated as a possible approach for rapid control, lessening of the severity of clinical signs and prophylactic protection of susceptible animals during FMD outbreaks. The prepared FMD virus-specific polyvalent immunoglobulins were concentrated, purified, filter sterilized (0.22nm) and its titer against the FMD virus serotypes, A, O and SAT2, was adjusted to 2.15, 2.25 and 2.10 log10 TCID50/ml, respectively. In an experimental FMDV induced infection, the immunoglobulin therapy was given 4 days post experimental infection. The effect of different doses of immunoglobulins (4, 6 and 8ml) the severity of the clinical signs, healing of lesions and virus shedding was determined. A dose of 8 ml (2.0 log10 TCID50/ml) of the prepared FMD virus-specific antibodies proved highly effective in reducing the severity of the clinical signs and inducing recovery within 48 - 96hrs post therapy, as compared with the control non-treated infected calves. A dose related recovery rate was recorded. Field trial was conducted and evaluated during the FMD outbreak in Egypt during 2016/2017. Significant reduction of the morbidity of the disease and 100% reduction of mortality were recorded. The prepared FMD virus-specific bovine polyvalent antibodies proved to be a drug of choice during FMD outbreaks protecting susceptible animals and inducing rapid recovery of diseased one associated with reducing clinical signs severity and reducing virus shedding.