Food Purchases Research Articles

Associations between Thai children’s exposure to unhealthy food marketing and their diet-related outcomes: findings from a national cross-sectional survey

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to examine associations between children’s exposure to food marketing and their liking, purchase and consumption of unhealthy foods in Thailand. A face-to-face cross-sectional survey was conducted with a nationally representative sample of 4,117 Thai children aged 6–18 years. Ordinal logistic regression models were applied to determine the association between marketing exposures and liking, purchase and consumption of unhealthy foods. Of all children, 78.8% reported seeing cartoons on food packaging in the past week, while 72.5% had seen a celebrity or online influencer endorses a product. Most children (84%) reported being exposed to marketing for unhealthy foods through social media in the past week. Exposure to unhealthy food marketing was positively associated with children’s preferences for, and purchases and intakes of, unhealthy foods. Comprehensive regulations are required in Thailand to limit children’s exposure to, and the persuasive power of, unhealthy food marketing.

Farm production, marketing, and children's nutritional outcomes in rural Zambia

AbstractDespite increasing agricultural productivity, malnutrition remains high among food producers in many developing countries. This study examines how the difference between agricultural household nutrition requirements and production kept for home consumption, the Nutritient deficiency from own production (NDOP), impacts children's height‐for‐age z‐scores (HAZ) using a unique survey of 528 households in Zambia. The study also investigates the relationship between NDOP and market‐bought nutrition and the role of intra‐season price changes in nutrition. To address the endogeneity of NDOP, we use a control function approach. We find that NDOP is associated with lower HAZ. Both energy (calories) NDOP and nutrient‐specific NDOP, resulting from underproduction relative to nutritional requirements and from selling more than surplus food crops, are negatively correlated with HAZ. This result suggests that higher productivity and market participation do not always lead to better nutrition. We also find that crop sales (commercialization) only benefit nutrition if the household only sells surplus output relative to its nutritional requirements. Finally, we also find that NDOP does not correlate with market food purchases, and that the seasonal price increases for cereals further dampens market food purchases. The findings highlight that policies promoting smallholder commercialisation may overlook detrimental nutrition trade‐offs when own‐production falls short of household needs. Accounting for post‐harvest allocation of nutrients between own‐consumption, sales, and purchases can help ensure agricultural interventions improve farmer livelihoods and child nutrition.

Testing the effect of ecolabels on the environmental impact of food purchases in worksite cafeterias: a randomised controlled trial

BackgroundReducing the environmental impact of foods consumed is important for meeting climate goals. We aimed to conduct a randomised controlled trial to test whether ecolabels reduce the environmental impact of food selected in worksite cafeterias, alone or in combination with increased availability of more sustainable meal options.MethodsWorksite cafeterias (n = 96) were randomised to one of three study groups, with 54 included for final analysis. One group was intended to increase the availability of meat-free options, but no change was implemented. Therefore, this group was treated as part of the control, creating two groups: (1) control (no ecolabels) (n = 35), and (2) ecolabels (n = 19). Regression analysis assessed the primary outcome of total environmental impact of hot meals sold over a 6-week period. Secondary outcome analyses explored the individual environmental indicators that composed the total environmental impact score (i.e., greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, eutrophication, and water scarcity). The mean weekly environmental impact scores of hot meal options over the full 12-week trial period were assessed using hierarchical mixed effects models.ResultsThere was no significant effect of the intervention on the environmental impact scores of meals sold (mean difference between control and intervention sites: -1.4%, 95%CI: -33.6%, + 30.8%). There was no evidence of an effect in mean weekly environmental impact score (-5.4%, 95%CI: -12.6%, + 2.5%), nor in any of the four individual environmental indicators (greenhouse gas emissions: -3.6%, 95%CI: -30.7%, 34.3%; biodiversity loss: 2.0%, 95%CI: -25.8%, 40.2%; eutrophication: -2.4%, 95%CI: -29.3%, 34.7%; water scarcity: -0.4%, 95%CI: -28.7%, 39.1%).ConclusionsEcolabels may not be an effective tool to shift consumer behaviour in worksite cafeterias towards meals with lower environmental impact.Trial registrationThe study was pre-registered prospectively on ISRCTN (https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN10268258; 06/01/2022).

The Healthy Supermarket Coach: effects of a nutrition peer-education intervention in Dutch supermarkets on adolescents’ food purchases

BackgroundDutch adolescents predominantly purchase unhealthy snacks in supermarkets, which negatively influence their health. The aim of this study was to investigate the short- and longer-term effects of a nutrition peer-education intervention in supermarkets on food purchases and determinants of food purchase behaviour among adolescents of different education levels.MethodsWe performed a quasi-experimental study in three supermarkets (two intervention and one comparison school) in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The intervention schools received a 45-min peer-education workshop in the supermarket near their school, and the comparison school received no intervention. The workshops also included a 2-week ‘healthy snacking challenge’ and were led by two young supermarket employees. Measurements were performed 2 weeks before the intervention (T0) 2 weeks after (T1) and 3 months (T2) after the intervention. Cash receipts were used to examine food purchases (n = 458) and questionnaires to examine determinants of food purchase behaviour (n = 463).ResultsThe nutrition peer-education intervention did not improve food purchases but did improve several determinants of food purchase behaviour. Adolescents from the intervention schools reported improved nutritional knowledge (β = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.04–0.72) at T1, more favourable attitudes (β = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.00–0.42) and stronger social support (β = 0.27, 95% CI: 0.02–0.53) for healthy food purchases at T2 compared to those from the comparison schools. Adolescents with a low level of education reported more short- and longer-term improvements of determinants of food purchase behaviour compared to those with a higher level of education.ConclusionsWhile nutrition peer education in supermarkets did not improve adolescents’ food purchases in the supermarket, determinants of food purchase behaviour did improve. The intervention was especially effective among adolescents with a low level of education. Nevertheless, to promote healthy food purchases of adolescents in supermarkets, more efforts are needed.

The mediating effect of trust in meal-sharing platforms on individuals’ intention to experience local meals

ABSTRACT Thanks to meal-sharing apps, tourists can experience meals in the homes of local people in the cities they visit. In addition, it is also seen that they participate in various cooking workshops in the homes of local people or visit local markets with them and buy food and beverages. Therefore, meal sharing is also an important gastronomy experience. The aim is to examine the mediating effect of trust in meal-sharing applications on individuals’ intention to experience local meals within the scope of the theory of planned behavior by focusing on the local meal experience offered in sharing economic practices. Questionnaires were collected from 397 Turkish participants. It was found that the participants mostly used sharing economy applications for accommodation (Airbnb) and transportation (Uber), but some participants used meal-sharing applications, albeit on different platforms. The study found that attitudes toward digital meal-sharing platforms and subjective norms are the strongest factors in the intention to taste local meals. It is concluded that the trust factor has a partial mediating role in the relationship between intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control.

Food Policy Councils and Healthy Food Access Policies: A 2021 National Survey of Community Policy Supports.

Food policy councils (FPCs) are frequently used to facilitate change in food systems at the local, state, and regional levels, or in tribal nations. The objective of this study was to describe the prevalence of food policy councils and similar coalitions among US municipalities and their associations with healthy food access policies. We used data from the 2021 National Survey of Community-Based Policy and Environmental Supports for Healthy Eating and Active Living, administered to municipal officials from May through September 2021. We used logistic regression models to examine associations between 1) having an FPC and 2) FPC membership composition and healthy food access policies. We grouped policies into 4 categories based on topic modules in the survey instrument: supporting new or existing food stores to sell healthy foods, financial or electronic benefits transfer (EBT) supports, transportation-related supports for accessing locations to purchase food, and consideration of local food supports in community planning. Municipalities with FPCs (27.6%) had significantly higher odds than municipalities without FPCs of having policies supporting access to food retail stores (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.5; 95% CI, 1.2-1.9), access to farmers markets (AOR = 2.2; 95% CI, 1.7-2.7), access to transportation supports (AOR = 2.2; 95% CI, 1.8-2.8), and objectives in community planning documents (AOR = 2.0; 95% CI, 1.6-2.5). Among municipalities with FPCs, those with a health/public health representative (42.1%) or a community representative (65.1%) were more likely to report having any healthy food access policies. This study emphasized the positive association between FPCs and healthy food access policies. This study also highlights the potential importance of FPC membership composition, including health/public health and community representatives.

Changes in Lifestyle Behaviors, Shopping Habits and Body Weight Among Adults in Cyprus and Greece During COVID-19 Lockdown: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, people were asked to stay at home. Places where people interacted such as schools, universities, and cafes were closed, and all gatherings were forbidden. Only stores offering fast-moving consumer goods were open, so citizens could purchase all food categories. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the effect of the COVID-19 lockdown on the eating and buying habits of consumers in Cyprus and Greece, and any changes in their lifestyles. Methods: An online survey including 1011 participants took place using an electronic questionnaire. Results: The results showed that lockdown significantly affected individuals by increasing weight gain (p < 0.01). The explanatory investigation of related lifestyle habits and nutrition traits showed that the dietary patterns behind these changes included increased meal frequency (p < 0.05)-even without an increased appetite-and subsequent increases in both purchases (p < 0.05) and consumption of several food groups (p < 0.05). Moreover, even though exercise per se was not discontinued due to COVID-19, it was apparent that exercise type was altered to adapt to the relevant restrictions (p < 0.05). Conclusions: In conclusion, the COVID-19 lockdown significantly affected Cypriots and Greeks in many aspects like their eating behavior, food purchasing habits, and lifestyle, all resulting in increased weight and potentially adverse health outcomes.

The Impact of Chemical Composition of Processed Foods on Human Health in Bangladesh

Processed foods have become a staple in the diet of many Bangladeshis due to urbanization and changing lifestyles. However, their chemical composition raises significant public health concerns. Investigating chemical composition of processed food consumption in Bangladesh and evaluating its relationship to dietary quality are the goals of this study. This study applies data from a nationwide household food budget survey to a classification of foods based on the kind, degree, and purpose of food processing. Foods are divided into three categories: chemical composition of processed food (Group 3), processed culinary components (Group 2), and unprocessed or slightly processed foods (Group 1). The population was selected from Dhaka city in Bangladesh. The result of this study is the average per capita energy availability from food purchases was 8908 (SE 81) kJ/d (2129 (SE 19) kcal/d). Chemical composition of processed foods accounted for more than 61.7 percent of dietary energy (Group 3), compared to 25.6 percent from Group 1 and 12.7 percent from Group 2. The total diet included less fiber than advised and surpassed WHO upper limits for fat, saturated fat, free sugars, and sodium density. Additionally, it surpassed the World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research's average energy density goal. When combined, Group 3 products are higher in fat, sugar, salt, and energy density than Group 1 and Group 2 products alone. According to the current analysis, any significant dietary change would need consuming significantly fewer chemical composition of processed food and a greater number of meals and dishes made with minimally processed foods and processed culinary components.

The "uneven road" to food: Socioeconomic disparities in the mobility burden of food purchasing behavior in major US cities, 2019-2023.

Socioeconomic factors contribute to distinct patterns of food-purchasing behaviors, placing a higher burden of mobility on vulnerable, deprived populations. Traditional approaches often overlook the dynamics of human activity as contextual influences, simulating a perceived food environment that contradicts the actual use thereof. The rise of large-scale mobile phone data presents a unique opportunity to capture real behavioral patterns and their mobility implications at a fine-grained level. Using a Time-Weighted Kernel Density Estimation (TWKDE) model on mobile phone data, this study introduces two novel measures - the Spatial Engel's Coefficient (SEC) index and the Distance-to-Activity Curve (DAC) - to assess the equity of food-purchasing travel across nine U.S. cities over five years, analyzed by socioeconomic status, time period, and location. Our findings reveal that lower socioeconomic status is strongly associated with greater mobility burdens in food-purchasing travel. This mobility gap between the highest and lowest socioeconomic groups was further exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, manifesting in the form of spatial segregation of opportunities within cities. This paper contributes to the literature by developing novel activity-based tools that offer a more nuanced understanding of the behavioral characteristics of food-purchasing activities. These empirical insights can help policymakers identify the communities facing the greatest mobility burdens and guide targeted, place-based interventions to promote equity in food access.

Children's cereal purchases by US households: Associations with child versus adult TV ad exposure.

Research is needed to demonstrate the impact of child-directed advertising on household purchases of nutrient-poor children's foods to support mandatory government regulations. This study examines the relationship between total TV advertising to children versus adults and U.S. household purchases of high-sugar children's cereals. Post-hoc analyses examine potential differential marginal effects of advertising on households experiencing health disparities. Longitudinal Nielsen U.S. household panel data (2009-2017) provided monthly volume (oz) of ready-to-eat cereal purchases by households with children (<12 years) (N=76,926). Nielsen gross ratings point data measured monthly TV advertising to children (6-11 years) and adults (18-49 years) (2008-2017). A two-part Cragg hurdle model assessed associations between child versus adult advertising for children's cereal brands (n=9) and subsequent household cereal purchases, including differences by household sociodemographic characteristics. Data were collected in 2021 and analyzed in 2023. Advertising to children, but not adults, was positively related to household purchases of children's cereals (p<0.01) across all sample households. Lower price (p<0.05) and greater household size (p<0.01) also predicted higher purchases. Marginal effects of advertising to children were higher for Black versus non-Black households (p<0.01), and positively related to purchases by middle/high-income (p<0.01) but not low-income households. Advertising to adults only predicted greater children's cereal purchases by low-income households (p<0.01). Advertising children's cereals directly to children may increase household purchases and children's consumption of these high-sugar products. Child-directed advertising may also disproportionately influence purchases by Black households. This study supports further restrictions on advertising of nutrient-poor foods directly to children.

Canada-wide survey of school food programs.

Canada remains one of few Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries without a well-established nationally harmonized and funded school food program (SFP); however, the Canadian federal government recently announced the development and implementation of a national SFP that might supersede the uncoordinated patchwork of SFPs currently delivered across Canada. We designed and conducted novel survey research to systematically identify the characteristics of organization-led SFPs, building on previous research that focused on the characteristics of provincial and territorial government involvement in school food programming. An electronic survey was developed to include items deemed most relevant based on applicable literature and expert content validation, and distributed to organizations involved in the purchasing, planning, and/or preparation of school foods. Responses were categorized post hoc into the RE-AIM categories to assess SFP Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance. Analysis identified key SFP implementation characteristics (including funding source, payment model, and student eligibility), program components, SFP goals/mandates, and factors that determine what foods are served; and assessed correlations among key characteristics. Results from 67 SFPs across 10 provinces indicate considerable variability in SFP characteristics. SFP-delivering organizations reported a predominant goal of reducing student food insecurity, while nutrition and cost were cited as the main factors determining food served. Collectively, organizations were found to rely primarily on donations, while provincial funding accounted for only 30% of total funding. These findings reveal strengths and areas for improvement within Canada's current school food landscape and highlight important gaps that could be addressed with federal involvement.

How Customers Decide: Unveiling the Drivers of Customers’ Online Purchase Behavior on Online Food Delivery Apps

Online Food Delivery (OFD) applications have become integral to modern consumer behavior, offering convenience in food and beverage purchases. However, challenges such as inconsistent user experiences, safety concerns, unreliable delivery, and food quality issues continue to impact customer satisfaction and purchase behavior. This research explores the factors influencing Customers’ Online Purchase Behavior (COPB) on OFD platforms in Malaysia, using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) framework. Data was collected through convenience sampling from OFD users in the Klang Valley region, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics via the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) respectively. The findings indicate that Social Influence, Hedonic Motivation, Price Value, Habit, and Trialability significantly impact COPB. Among these, Social Influence had the strongest positive effect (β = 0.171, p &lt; 0.001), suggesting that users’ decisions are strongly influenced by the perceptions of others. However, Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, and Facilitating Conditions were not found to significantly influence COPB. This lack of significance could be attributed to the mature technological infrastructure in Malaysia and the normalization of OFD applications. The study concludes that OFD service providers should focus on enhancing social connections, user enjoyment, competitive pricing, and habitual usage to boost customer satisfaction and loyalty. This research offers valuable insights for industry practitioners and suggests areas for future research, particularly regarding the role of performance-related factors in a mature market context.

Consumers’ Organic Food Purchase Behavior in Bangladesh : An Extended Theory of Planned Behavior Approach

Consumers’ Organic Food Purchase Behavior in Bangladesh : An Extended Theory of Planned Behavior Approach

Retail food environment around higher education institutions in a Brazilian metropolis.

To analyze the retail food environment and identify the presence of food swamps around public and private higher education institutions (HEIs) in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais. This is an ecological study with the analysis unit being a 500-meter buffer network around 81 in-person HEI units. The density and proximity between the HEIs and food purchasing establishments for immediate consumption were assessed according to the administrative category and per capita income of the census tract, as well as the presence of food swamps. In 98.76% of the buffers there was at least one establishment for immediate consumption. Snack bars, restaurants, and bars were the categories most available and closest to the HEIs. The density of establishments was higher around private HEIs and around HEIs located in higher income areas. It was found that 95.06% of HEIs were located in areas classified as food swamps. Thus, the HEIs evaluated were exposed to neighborhoods with an unhealthy food environment, which may predispose university students to food choices based on the consumption of ultra-processed foods and alcoholic beverages.

"Just-in-time" but a bit delayed: Personalizing digital nudges for healthier online food choices.

As food choices are increasingly made in contexts such as online supermarkets, nudging has been extrapolated to the digital sphere. Digitalization poses unique opportunities to enhance the promotion of healthier food choices online: Digital nudges can be delivered "just-in-time" (JIT), in response to the initial selection of an unhealthy product. Furthermore, digital JIT nudges can be personalized to match user characteristics of behavioral relevance, such as one's food and cognitive processing preferences. We examined whether personalizing by user-matching digital JIT nudges on content (i.e., emphasizing health versus price) and/or type (i.e., a text-based versus an image-based nudge) would increase nudge effectiveness and healthier food purchases, and assessed psychological mechanisms potentially underlying these enhanced effects. In a 2 (Nudge Content: Non-personalized versus Personalized) by 2 (Nudge Type: Non-personalized versus Personalized) randomized controlled trial, 200 healthy participants completed an online grocery shopping task on a mock supermarket app in which they first selected products from 10 different categories, followed by a checkout screen where they could replace products in the shopping basket. Personalizing nudge type increased nudge effectiveness (i.e., the proportion of accepted nudges when choosing products from categories). Personalizing nudge content seemed to exert a delayed effect of increasing healthier product replacements prior to checkout. User perceptions of JIT nudges did not vary with personalization. However, regardless of personalization, all JIT nudging conditions had more final healthier food purchases and greater satisfaction with food choices compared to the control condition. Collectively, this pre-registered "proof-of-principle" study demonstrates that personalizing the content and type of digital JIT nudges yields small positive benefits on the healthiness of online food choices and attests to the utility of JIT interventions for health promotion.

Falling into Temptation

Food-related impulsivity is described in literature as a regulatory response to negative emotions. However, it is unclear whether emotional regulation can mediate the relationship between psychological traits and eating motivations and impulsivity in food purchasing. This article analyzes the influence of impulsive traits, anxiety, and eating motivations on impulsivity in food purchasing considering the mediating role of emotional regulation. A convenience sample was accessed during the COVID-19 pandemic, consisting of Brazilians, mostly female, with high income, average age of 35 years, and average BMI of 25.87. The hypotheses were tested using Structural Equation Modeling with the Partial Least Squares method (PLS-SEM). The results show that individuals with a tendency to impulsive purchases and with greater difficulty in regulating emotions tend to be more impulsive in food purchasing. The tendency to impulsivity and trait anxiety seem to impair emotional self-control, while adopting functional goals can contribute to self-control. Furthermore, individuals with a higher tendency toward impulsivity appear to cope worse with their emotions when they do not have health goals. The segregation of trait and state anxiety and the inclusion of the emotion regulation construct offer theoretical contributions to the literature. This study also discusses managerial and well-being implications for consumers.

Sistem Penyelenggaraan Makanan pada Keluarga Nelayan yang Memiliki Anak Balita di Kepulauan Masaloka Raya Kabupaten Bombana

Nutritional problems in the coastal area of ​​the Masaloka Raya Health Center are very high, the prevalence of stunting is 27.7% wasting 19%. 0.4% overweight and 34.9% underweight. The food management system for fishermen's families also plays a role in determining the nutritional problems of coastal communities, especially in the aspects of purchasing, cooking and distributing food. The purpose of this study was to determine the food management system by mothers in fishing families in the Masaloka Raya Islands, Bombana Regency. This type of research is descriptive, cross-sectional study approach. This research was conducted in Masaloka Raya Village in August 2024. The population was all toddlers in the Masaloka Health Center area, which was 84 people and the sample was some toddlers as many as 34 people who were taken using the simple random sampling technique. Data were collected using a valid and reliable questionnaire and analyzed descriptively. The results of the study found that the food purchasing system in fishing families was mostly in the sufficient category (91.2%), the rest was lacking (8.8%). The cooking system was mostly lacking (52.9%) and the rest (47.1%). The food distribution system was 100% sufficient. The conclusion of this study is that the food purchasing and distribution system is in the good category while the cooking system is mostly lacking. Suggestions for fishing families are to buy local vegetables and fruits so that nutritional needs are met in a balanced way and not to use food flavor enhancers such as royko or Masako. For Masaloka Raya Village to provide education related to balanced nutrition and for further researchers, to statistically analyze the causes of the lack of food cooking systems for fishing families in the coastal areas of the Masaloka Islands.

Drivers of Organic Food Purchase Intentions: Insights from the Indian Market

Objective: This study aims to understand what drives people in India to purchase organic food, focusing on factors like health benefits, social influences, and practical value. It seeks to uncover how these elements shape consumer intentions and behavior. Theoretical Framework: The research is guided by theories of consumer behavior, especially the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which examines how attitudes, societal expectations, and perceived control influence decisions. Key concepts like health awareness, social pressure, and product value form the foundation for this exploration. Method: A survey-based quantitative approach was used to collect data from Indian consumers with varying levels of familiarity with organic food. Participants responded to a structured questionnaire, which was validated for consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.912). The data were analyzed using reliability tests, descriptive statistics, and correlation studies. Results and Discussion: The findings show that health benefits and social norms strongly influence organic food purchase intentions. Consumers generally view organic food as high-quality and good for health, but opinions on its safety and social status are mixed. Limited availability and convenience emerged as key challenges. These insights are examined in light of existing theories, along with the study’s limitations. Research Implications: This study offers valuable guidance for policymakers, retailers, and producers to boost organic food adoption by improving accessibility, emphasizing health benefits, and leveraging social influence through marketing. Originality/Value: Focusing on the Indian market, this research sheds new light on consumer motivations in an emerging economy, providing actionable strategies to promote organic food consumption.

Knowledge of Food Label Among Master’s Students of Home Science in Kathmandu: A Cross-Sectional Study

The part of food labels that states the amount of nutrients is called nutrition labeling. This comprises a list of components, a nutrition information table, health endorsement logos and nutritional content claims on product labels. Food labeling is an essential part of any product. As a food producer, it is not only legally required but also empowers customers to make informed food purchases and ensures the safe storage and use of their purchases. Students in food and nutrition should be knowledgeable in the topics of label reading, healthy eating, and how to use food labels as future nutritionists. With this sound understanding, they will be able to counsel their future patients on the proper use of food labels and, as a result, become change agents in the community. It can also help people live healthier lives if food labels are used appropriately. This study aimed to evaluate students’ understanding of food labels in home science. Using a descriptive cross-sectional approach, data were collected through purposive sampling. The findings indicated that among the 118 participants, the majority (98%) were aware of the food labels, although only about half could interpret all the information on them. The study suggests that although most students recognize food labels, they may lack a comprehensive understanding of the details provided. This underscores the importance of public awareness campaigns and educational programs to improve consumer knowledge and the effective use of food label information.

Analysis of Online Food Purchase Frequency in Dual-Income Households Using the Nonlinear Difference in Differences

Analysis of Online Food Purchase Frequency in Dual-Income Households Using the Nonlinear Difference in Differences