Food Printing Research Articles

Views on the usability, design, and future possibilities of a 3D food printer for people with dysphagia: outcomes of an immersive experience

Purpose Although 3D food printing is expected to enable the creation of visually appealing pureed food for people with disability and dysphagia, little is known about the user experience in engaging with 3D food printing or the feasibility of use with populations who need texture-modified foods. The aim of this study was to explore the feasibility and usability of using domestic-scale 3D food printer as an assistive technology to print pureed food into attractive food shapes for people with dysphagia. Materials and Methods In total, 16 participants engaged in the unfamiliar, novel process of using a domestic-scale 3D food printer (choosing, printing, tasting), designed for printing pureed food, and discussed their impressions in focus group or individual interviews. Results and Conclusions Overall, results demonstrated that informed experts who were novice users perceived the 3D food printing process to be fun but time consuming, and that 3D food printers might not yet be suitable for people with dysphagia or their supporters. Slow response time, lack of user feedback, scant detail on the appropriate recipes for the pureed food to create a successful print, and small font on the user panel interface were perceived as barriers to accessibility for people with disability and older people. Participants expected more interactive elements and feedback from the device, particularly in relation to resolving printer or user errors. This study will inform future usability trials and food safety research into 3D printed foods for people with disability and dysphagia. IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION 3D food printers potentially have a role as an assistive technology in the preparation of texture-modified foods for people with disability and dysphagia. To increase feasibility, 3D food printers should be co-designed with people with disability and their supporters and health professionals working in the field of dysphagia and rehabilitation. Experts struggled to be able to print 3D pureed shapes owing to relatively low usability of the 3D food printer tested with problems using the interface and resolving problems in the print. 3D food printing is a fun and novel activity and may help to engage people with disability and dysphagia in making choices around the shape of the food to be printed.

Generation of porous starch beads via a 3D food printer: The effects of amylose content and drying technique

A new approach via extrusion-based 3D food printing (3DP) was developed to fabricate porous spherical beads from corn starches with different amylose contents (i.e., 25, 55, and 72 %). The effects of amylose content and drying method, i.e., freeze-drying and supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), on the structural properties of the starch beads were investigated. The shape and size of the 3D-printed beads highly depended on the starches' amylose content as it affected the rheological properties of the inks. The smallest 3D-printed bead size was ∼980 μm generated from high amylose (72 %) corn starch. 3DP of starch with high amylose content along with SC-CO2 drying resulted in starch beads with superior properties. The SC-CO2-dried beads showed a significantly higher surface area (175 m2/g) than the freeze-dried ones (<1 m2/g).

Rheology of edible food inks from 2D/3D/4D printing, and its role in future 5D/6D printing

Food printing involving 2D, 3D, 4D and 5D printing methods has attracted extensive attention owing to the growing living standards and higher consumer demand for innovative food. Printable biopolymers with a special structure hierarchy are particularly appealing to formulate edible inks for food printing as they serve as essential structural components for constructing ink matrix and providing a supportive presence for the printed functions. Rheology (e.g., viscosity, yield stress, temperature ramp & sweep, oscillatory modulus, creep-recovery and thixotropy by methodology including rotation tests, oscillatory tests and mathematic rheological models) is important to redefine the relationship between edible inks and printability. It is essential to promote the practical mass food printing application with high consumer acceptance. The rheological principles of edible inks that underpin a variety of printing techniques are discussed systematically including flowability, shearing dependence, thermal endurability and structure maintainability for pre-evaluating the potential printing effectiveness. The related rheology models indicate the capacity to further deepen the link between ink structure and printing efficiency for printing multi-functional food products. It is found that rheology lays the foundation for design, development and food application of edible food ink printing. This review also summarizes recent advances in 2D/3D/4D/5D printing of rheologically-stable inks in food application, including food decoration, food customization and food intelligence. Additionally, prospects (like 6D printing) and key challenges (rheology with multidisciplinary integration) for edible ink printing are proposed and addressed for creative food production. • Printable biopolymers with reversible structure benefit constructing ink matrix. • Rheology creates bridge between edible ink formulation and food printability. • Rheology highly relates to flowability, structure maintainability, etc., of inks. • Rheology drives 2D/3D/4D/5D printing for food innovation with multi purposes. • Challenge and opportunity of printing (like 6D) coexist in fast-growing food market.

Creating protein-rich snack foods using binder jet 3D printing

Rising consumer demand for healthy snacks drives a rapid market growth of protein-rich foods. While numerous studies used extrusion-based 3D food printing, only few investigated binder jet 3D printing to structure food materials. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of binder jet 3D printing to create protein-rich foods using Calcium Caseinate (CaCas) powder. We successfully printed foods using powder mixtures of CaCas, starch, and medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) powder. Addition of native starch to CaCas reduced swelling upon binder addition and enhanced the printability of powder mixtures. High protein model foods with different texture properties were obtained by changing ingredient, binder composition and post-treatment by heating. Food textures obtained ranged from crumbly to springy. This study highlights new opportunities to create protein-rich foods using binder jet 3D printing technology.

Textural and sensory qualities of low-calorie surimi with carrageenan inserted as a protein substitute using coaxial extrusion 3D food printing

This study proposed a method to produce the low-calorie surimi by inserting a protein substitute (PS) solution composed of carrageenan into surimi using coaxial three-dimensional (3D) printing. Carrageenan was selected for its zero-calorie and highly elastic gel-forming properties. To determine the optimal PS insertion conditions, different κ- and ι-carrageenan composition ratios were tested. Although all PS solutions tested formed a gel during the cooling process, rheological properties indicated PS(kC2.5%-iC0.5%) had the highest similarity to surimi. 3D-printed surimi up to 50% replacement ratio of PS showed the higher printing accuracy and post-processing stability, lower cooking loss, and more similar color when compared with 70% replacement ratio of PS. Using 3D printing to insert PS into surimi effectively reflected the salinity of surimi, despite its low-calorie content. This coaxial system could be adapted in addition to fiber inserts or other 3D printed food products requiring the use of independent two materials.

SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW ON 3D PRINTING PERSONALISED FOOD FOR THE ELDERLY

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is currently a new technology being developed in the food industry due to its ability to design, customize, and fabricate a product with good precision and accuracy. Therefore, with regard to the mastication problems frequently faced by elderly people, this technology is utilized to design foods that can be consumed by them. Since there was limited published literature on the subject, the present study aimed to systematically review 3D printing personalized food for the elderly. The study used PRISMA as a guideline for report writing while integrating multiple research designs. This paper employed three databases to select the articles: Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The study included five analyzed themes: 1) hardness; 2) moisture; 3) viscosity; 4) elasticity; and 5) printability. The study significantly contributed to several practical purposes and the body of knowledge. The findings provided the factors affecting the 3D printing of food, its mechanisms, and its significance.

Development of an Abalone 3D Food Printing Ink for the Personalized Senior-Friendly Foods

Notably for seniors, 3D food printing is an appropriate processing method for creating customized meals that meet their unique nutritional requirements and textural preferences. This study attempted to develop an ink for food 3D printers containing abalone powder and several nutrition properties that meet the criteria for senior-friendly foods. The texture of the products was adjusted using gelatin. The ink consisted of abalone powder (10%), soybean protein (4.5%), polydextrose (2.5%), vitamin C (0.0098%), and gellan gum (1%). To examine the physicochemical properties of the ink, texture, water holding capacity, and rheological properties were measured. In addition, the suitability of the 3D printing was examined. As a result, 3% gelatin 3D food printing ink demonstrated optimal printability and could be converted into foods that could be consumed in one step (teeth intake), depending on the types of food for seniors.

Food additive manufacturing with lipid-based inks: Evaluation of phytosterol-lecithin oleogels

Structured vegetable oils can replace animal-derived fats providing healthier products. 3D food printing is a toll for designing complex and tailored foods. Nonetheless, the printability of oleogels is yet an underexplored topic. Herein, we report on water-free sunflower oil oleogels comprising lecithin and phytosterols with room temperature printability. The printability was optimized based on four geometric features, time stability, total solids, phytosterol-lecithin ratio, speed, and number of layers. The microstructure, X-ray diffraction, texture, printing tests, and design of experiments revealed highly printable oleogels at both low (≥20%) and high solids (up to 80%), for specific ratios of phytosterol-lecithin. Those presented a needle-like microstructure with polymorphic forms β′ and β-crystals. Some texture properties (e.g., adhesiveness) were significantly affected by the speed, total solids and ratio.With this work we propose using highly printable oleogels for different food applications, nevertheless future work should clarify how printed oleogels will behave when incorporated in a food matrix.

Applications of micellar casein concentrate in 3D-printed food structures

3D food printing has been touted as a useful tool to create innovative textures and eating experiences. A comprehensive understanding of the effect of internal (e.g., calcium supplementation/chelation) and external (e.g., printed geometry and dissolution temperature) factors on the functionality of 3D-printed Micellar Casein Concentrate (MCC) is therefore, advantageous for the development of potential 3D-printed dairy-based product applications. Calcium supplementation or chelation was found to effect melting behaviour and textural attributes of 3D-printed MCC. Printed samples with higher concentrations of calcium chloride (5 mM) had slower rates of dissolution and solubility than printed control or samples with lower concentrations (1 mM). This trend was augmented at higher dissolution temperatures. Samples printed in a porous 3D-shape with high surface area: volume ratio dissolved at a faster rate than those with low surface area: volume ratio. Overall, highly concentrated MCC systems were demonstrated to have potential as base-materials for 3D-printing snack-sized dairy products.

Acceptability Analysis of 3D-Printed Food in the Area of the Czech Republic Based on Survey.

The aim of the research was to observe consumer perceptions of 3D food printing and to highlight possible applications of this production. The questionnaire survey took place in the Czech Republic and was attended by 1156 respondents. The questionnaire was divided into six sections: (1) Socio-Demographic Data; (2) 3D Common Printing Awareness; (3) 3D Food Printing Awareness; (4) 3D Food Printing, Worries and Understanding; (5) Application; (6) Investments. Although awareness of 3D food printing is increasing, a very small fraction of respondents had encountered printed food in person (1.5%; n = 17). Respondents expressed concerns about the health benefits and the reduced prices of novel foods, and they perceived printed foods as ultra-processed foods (56.0%; n = 647). Concerns have also been raised about job losses due to the introduction of new technology. On the contrary, they perceived that quality raw materials would be used to prepare printed foods (52.4%; n = 606). Most respondents believed that printed foods would be visually appealing and would find application in several food industry sectors. Most respondents believed that 3D food printing is the future of the food sector (83.8%; n = 969). The gained results can be helpful for 3D food printer producers, as well as for future experiments dealing with 3D food printing issues.

Ready-to-use granule-based food ink system for three-dimensional food printing

In this study, we propose a novel “granule-based food-ink system” in which the ink gels upon moisture exposure. We have identified several factors that hinder the industrialization of 3D food printing inks. Syringe-filling granules were prepared using pea protein isolate powder and pullulan binders. All granules reacted with moisture and turned into food ink through hydration and gelling. We confirmed the formation of homogenous gels through dynamic viscoelasticity analysis of samples taken at selected points. The rheological properties of food inks are affected by the concentration of the pullulan binder. Increasing the pullulan binder concentration caused spread over. We prepared food inks using PPI granules as syringe fillers. This method packed the gel into a syringe. Through rheological characterization and 3D printing testing, this study demonstrates the potential for 3D printing applications in the food industry. • PPI-based granules are prepared with various concentrations of pullulan binders. • The prepared granules are gelled inside the syringe through moisture penetration. • The homogeneity of the gel inside the syringe was evaluated by rheological analysis. • The printability decreased as the concentration of pullulan in the binder increased.

Systematic Engineering approach for optimization of multi-component alternative protein-fortified 3D printing food Ink

Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP) of multicomponent inks fortified with alternative proteins can help drive consumers towards easier and greater acceptance of alternative proteins by familiar nature of the final printed products with respects to taste, texture and appearance. Protein fortification is a well-established way of improving the nutritional and functional properties of foods and helping prevent malnutrition. This work focuses on the optimization of multicomponent food inks containing alternative proteins through response surface methodology (RSM) for 3D printing. RSM reduces the number of experiments required to robustly investigate the interrelationships between the desired response and composition of inks, thereby saving precious resources and time. A plant protein, three insect proteins, and an algae protein along with a traditional animal protein were chosen to fortify carrot powder. Usage of carrot as a vegetable food base to which different proteins and xanthan gum were combined served the purpose of adding the flavour and nutrition as well as providing desired rheological properties for printing. The six protein inks were optimised with the addition of hydrocolloid xanthan gum which worked as an excellent shear thinning and hydrating agent. Printability and syneresis were the targeted responses for optimization by RSM with the second order multiple linear regression model. The rheology, microstructure and textural profile of optimised protein inks were also studied. This RSM-based approach for multi-component food ink optimization is envisioned to be widely adopted in 3D food printing. • Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP) of food fortified with alternative proteins. • Insect, plant, algal and animal-based food powders utilised for 3DFP covering varied dietary habits. • Response surface methodology used for systematic optimization of multi-component protein inks. • Approach suitable for food ink optimization using responses including printability and syneresis. • Cricket, BSFL and sericin used as insect protein powders.

Development of aqueous protein/polysaccharide mixture-based inks for 3D printing towards food applications

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is a promising technique as it allows to create elaborated food constructs or customized food for elderly people and other sensitive population (i.e. children, pregnant women or athletes). The structural and textual properties of food constructs depend strongly on the ingredients used and the shape produced. Two important biological macromolecular components, namely protein and polysaccharides, are the most important in terms of nutritional content. In this work, we developed a water-based protein/polysaccharide food ink from a mixture of gelatin B (GB) and xanthan gum (XG) for 3D printing. A 40-layer 3D scaffold with defined features was successfully printed at room temperature using an aqueous mixture of 3 wt% GB and 10 wt% XG. Adding 37.5 mM calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) or lowering the storage temperature to 4 °C improved the rheological properties of the ink, which endowed the scaffold with higher shape fidelity right after printing and good shape retention for at least 96 h. Texture profile results revealed that the infill percentage of the scaffold is critical to textural properties of the scaffold, highlighting the advantage of 3D printing in tuning sensory food perception. • Gel food ink based on Gelatin B (GB) and Xanthan gum (XG) is successfully used in 3D printing. • Addition of calcium ions and low storage temperature benefit the dimensional stability of the printed GB/XG scaffolds. • 3D scaffolds using the GB/XG gel ink with the addition of 37.5 mM Ca 2+ show the most stable and precise geometry. • 3D printing allows controlling infill percentage which plays an essential role in textural properties of GB/XG scaffolds.

Evaluation of rheology and printability of 3D printing nutritious food with complex formulations

Understanding rheological properties and printability of complex food formulations is crucial for 3D printing. While nutritious formulations have been reported in the literature, these are still scarce when compared to the non-nutritious ones. These so-labeled nutritious formulations are achieved with few ingredients, leading to less challenging printability issues. The nutritious formulations presented here are reported for the first time and include up to 9 ingredients, including by-products (orange peel) and sustainable proteins (insect flour). This work aimed to evaluate and to correlate the printability and the rheological properties of nutritious complex food formulations. The concentration of pregelatinized corn starch (4–10% (w/w)) and printing temperature (27–47 °C) were varied. Rheological characterization of the studied food inks (i.e., amplitude sweep, shear-viscosity test, shear-recovery test, time-dependent shear test, temperature ramps, temperature sweep in the oscillatory mode) was performed. Printability was evaluated via a digital image analysis of the geometric features of the printed structures. An increment in the concentration of pregelatinized starch (from 4% to 10%) raised the yield stress and the storage modulus from 87.5 to 883.2 Pa and from 1004.9 to 2620.9 Pa, respectively. However, high values of rheological parameters did not correspond to an improved printability. For instance, the printability evaluation showed that formulations with 6% and 8% of pregelatinized starch were more suitable for printing than the one with 10%. Finally, initial mathematical correlations between rheology and printability were obtained and could be of benefit to potentialize complex food printing systems. The results presented showed that both, rheology, and printability analyzes, must be performed when printing complex formulations towards the development of personalized food items. More research in this regard is needed to develop new methodologies for the evaluation of 3D printing materials.

Development of soy protein isolate emulsion gels as extrusion-based 3D food printing inks: Effect of polysaccharides incorporation

Soy protein isolate (SPI) emulsion gel inks with polysaccharides of guar gum (GG) or xanthan gum (XG) for extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) printing were investigated. The effects of the polysaccharide type and concentration on the printability, rheological properties, and microstructure of inks were discussed. Results indicated that the 3D printed products of SPI-GG0.5 inks demonstrated low dimensional printing deviation with great self-supporting capability and smooth and slightly flawed surface texture, while SPI-XG0.5 inks had the highest hardness and rough surface texture. The results of small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) and large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) test proved that SPI-XG0.5 inks exhibited the maximal gel strength, providing its 3D printed products with highest hardness. Secondary loops of Lissajous plots wouldn't emerge in SPI-XG0.5 inks, indicating decreased network flexibility and slightly larger dimensional printing deviation. The microstructure and fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis suggested the interaction of SPI with XG was stronger than that of GG due to hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. When the XG concentration reached 0.5%, the network structure of the inks was changed, resulting in a rough surface texture of the 3D printed product. There are few studies on 3D printing of SPI emulsion gels, and this research offers more possibilities for the development of 3D printing inks.

The interaction study of soluble pectin fiber and surimi protein network from silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) based on a new prediction model

Pure surimi of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) cannot meet the texture requirements in novel 3D printing of food. In this work, the effect mechanism of adding soluble pectin fiber on the quality of surimi was studied at molecular scale, and the interaction has been discussed by a novel prediction model. In comparison with pure surimi, pH and water-holding capacity decreased with increasing pectin, and texture properties improved. The storage modulus firstly rose and then decreased, reaching a maximum value of 15012 Pa at 0.5 % pectin addition. The thermal transition temperature of myosin was moved from 52.13 to 49.80 °C. Pectin extended the T22 relaxation time, suggesting a decrease in immobilized water. A new Time-series prediction model and interaction analysis further explored the intrinsic correlation of various parameters of surimi with different pectin additions. This work contributes to add our understanding of pectin application in surimi products in future special dietary food.

3D printed gluten-free cereal snack with incorporation of Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) and/or Chlorella vulgaris

3D food printing is a recent technology promising to break cultural barriers by introducing new food sources such as microalgae, through innovative food shapes and textures, in a resource-scarce world whose sustainability is at stake because of the current intensive production of meat and agriculture products. The present work intends to create an innovative gluten-free cereal snack nutritionally improved by the incorporation of Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis (“Spirulina”) biomass using 3D printing technology. Doughs without (control) or with microalgal biomass with different incorporation percentages (from 5 to 30 %) were tested and those showing the most adequate rheology (low viscoelastic moduli and apparent viscosity) and texture (low firmness, adhesiveness and high cohesiveness) properties for a correct printing process were selected and baked (control and 5 % microalgae incorporation). Nutritional characterization of the control and 5 % snacks was performed, in terms of total protein and lipid contents, ash, humidity, water activity, energy, and carbohydrates, as well as total phenolics, pigments and antioxidant activity. Physical traits of snacks, including their colour and size, were also analysed. Control snacks presented a lighter and yellow colour compared to snacks containing Chlorella and Spirulina, which had higher green chromaticity (Control: a* −0.953, b* 21.3; Chlorella 5 %: a* −2.20, b* 11.8; Spirulina 5 %: a* -1.05, b* 3.55). Nutritional characterization revealed that snacks containing Chlorella and Spirulina had both higher protein and essential minerals content. Overall, 5 % Spirulina snacks presented the best nutritional and sensory performance, with higher antioxidant activity, mineral and protein contents. These Spirulina-snacks deserved a positive sensory appreciation from consumers.

Shear-induced structuring of phase-separated sodium caseinate - sodium alginate blends using extrusion-based 3D printing: Creation of anisotropic aligned micron-size fibrous structures and macroscale filament bundles

3D food printing is considered a promising method to prepare personalized foods having unique macroscopic design and composition. It is still challenging to create 3D printed foods with tailored microstructure, e.g. fibrous microstructures, to print meat-like foods. In this study we investigated the preparation of 3D printed model food gels that have macro- and microscale aligned fibrous structures using sodium caseinate - sodium alginate (SC/SA) blends with extrusion-based printing. A bath containing an agar fluid gel was used to allow precise deposition and solidification of the SC/SA blend after the printing process. Besides, the influences of nozzle type and printing speeds on texture were assessed. We succesfully created aligned micron-size fibrous structures and macroscale aligned filament bundles. Filaments extruded using tapered nozzles had finer fibrous structures compared to those extruded using straight nozzles. Both printing speed and nozzle type significantly influenced Young's moduli of 3D printed model food gels. A higher printing speed resulted in smaller Young's moduli of individual printed filaments. This study shows that anisotropic structures can be created by extrusion-based 3D printing of phase-separated sodium caseinate - sodium alginate blends. The results of this study might become relevant when striving for meat analogues made by 3D-printing.

Improving 3D food printing performance using computer vision and feedforward nozzle motion control

3D food printing is an emerging technology to customize food designs and produce personalized foods. Food printing materials are diverse in rheological properties, which makes reliable extrusion-based 3D printing with constant printing parameters a challenge. Food printing often suffers from improper extrusion because of the varying elasticity of the food materials. In this study, a computer vision (CV)-based method is developed to measure the instant extrusion rate and width under constant extrusion pressure/force. The measured extrusion rate and extruded filament width were used to conduct a feedforward control of nozzle motion for a pneumatic 3D food printer. As a result, the CV-based control method improves extrusion line accuracy to 97.6–100% and prevents under-extrusion of white chocolate spread, cookie dough, and processed cheese. The method can also be used to customize filament width with less than 8% of deviation from the target. With a simple measurement setup and a user-friendly software interface, this CV-based method is deployable to most food printing applications to reduce trial-and-error experiments when printing a new food material.

Thermographic and rheological characterization of viscoelastic materials for hot-extrusion 3D food printing

Thermoreversible food materials are suitable for hot-extrusion 3D food printing (HE-3DFP) to customize food designs and enable on-demand food production. A challenge of HE-3DFP is to control the material phase transition such that it melts to allow flow and extrusion and rapidly solidifies afterwards to obtain stable printed structures. We here report on the use of thermal imaging to simultaneously monitor material cooling and deformation of common thermoreversible food materials during HE-3DFP. Thermographic and rheological measurements show that the structural deformation is driven by slow material cooling and prolonged printing time. The surface temperature of printed objects is a good indicator for structural stability. Solidification mechanisms such as cross-linking or strong particle jamming are required to prevent deformation in time (i.e. creep) during printing. Thus we recommend to set the printing temperature just above material's gelation temperature to ensure proper extrudability and structural stability of the printed foods.