Duck Food Research Articles

Biomass and Salinity Tolerance of Shoalgrass and Manateegrass in Lower Laguna Madre, Texas

Three different shoalgrass (Diplanthera wrightii) stands and a manateegrass (Syringodium filiforme) community in Lower Laguna Madre, Texas, were sampled for their plant biomass. The winter standing crop of all (wet) shoalgrass herbage and roots is estimated to be 317,345 tons, a yield of 4,656 lb/acre. The standing crop of (wet) manateegrass is estimated to be 48,214 tons, a yield of 5,795 lb/acre. Shoalgrass exhibits a seasonal abundance, the smallest standing crop occurring in late winter and spring. Manateegrass is not seasonal in abundance. Shoalgrass sprigs planted in culture vessels lived in salinities ranging from 9.0 to 52.5 parts per thousand (ppt), but died in salinities of 3.5 ppt, and 70.0 ppt, or more. Manateegrass rhizomes planted in culture vessels survived best in a sa- linity of 35.0 ppt, while those planted in a vessel containing 52.5 ppt died. Shoalgrass is an important food of waterfowl wintering in Lower Laguna Madre, and provides spawning and nursery grounds for fish and shrimp. Manateegrass appears to be of minimal value to fish and waterfowl. If the usual sa- linity of Laguna Madre is permanently decreased by construction of fish passes from the Gulf of Mexico, or by drainages from river diversion projects, the shoalgrass biomass is likely to be reduced and the production promoted of manateegrass or other marine spermatophytes intolerant of hypersaline water. In terms of fish and wildlife, the Lower Laguna Madre is probably the most im- portant bay along the Texas coast. The lagoon has become the leading producer of important bay fishes with the general de- cline of commercial production in other bays (Breuer 1962:153). The Lower La- guna Madre also winters about one-half million waterfowl annually, including ap- proximately 78 percent of the existing red- head duck (Aythya americana) population (Weller 1964:64). One reason for the exceptional abundance of fish and waterfowl in Lower Laguna Madre is dense stands of shoalgrass, a sub- mergent marine spermatophyte which pro- vides cover and spawning grounds for fish and shrimp. Shoalgrass also is the chief plant food of most ducks wintering in South Texas bays (Singleton 1953:46). Manatee- grass, another submergent spermatophyte, extends in a near homogeneous stand over a large area of the southern part of Lower 1 This paper is a contribution from the Pittman-

A Device for Determining Duck Brood Hatching Dates

A circular calculator is described for determining duck brood hatching dates. The inexpensive device, which was found to be accurate and time saving, is easy to operate and construct. Biologists working with large volumes of brood data have found that special devices expedite back-dating for constructing hatching curves. Schroeder (1957) developed a series of calculators for dealing with large numbers of duck broods. Kabat et al. (1950) described a modified slide rule used for back-dating natural events in game animals. Another modified slide rule was used by Reeves (1952) for back-dating quail broods. With the exception of Schroeder's (1957) device, the aids to back-dating broods involve modifying a standard slide rule. Unfortunately, to do this accurately is difficult, and the cost of a slide rule to be modified is considerable. Schroeder's device for duck brood data consists of a set of circular calculators; one is required for each species of duck. The device described here is a single c lculator developed for determining hatching dates of duck broods in conjunction with Gollop and Marshall's (1954) field guide to aging. The hatching dates of other species, of course, can be determined where aging criteria are available. 195 also. There was no animal material in any of the stomachs. My data suggest that leading sources of food for wood ducks in the Southeast are water oak, pin oak, baldcypress, sweetgum, water hickory, ash (Fraximus sp.), green hawthorn (Crataegus viridis), and American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). Where wood ducks are important, I recommend that these trees be left when timber stand improvement is being conducted on areas managed for both timber and wildlife.

Production of Duck Food in Beaver Ponds

Field trials in central Alabama demonstrated that beaver (Castor canadensis) ponds could be economically managed for high yields of Japanese millet (Echinochloa crusgalli var. frumentacea. The methods used over a 3-year period, beginning in 1958, for 30 field trials consisted of: (1) breaking beaver dams late in spring or early summer, sowing Japanese millet, and maintaining drainage until mil- let matured, by repeated breaking if needed; and (2) breaking beaver dams, using log drains to maintain drainage, sowing Japanese millet, and removing drains after millet matured. Log drains proved to be the more economical method, $4.15 per acre. Yields of Japanese millet seed were 6 to 10 times those of the native plants of value for duck food that became established in drained beaver ponds. Landowners had no difficulty in leasing duck-shooting rights on the managed beaver ponds. The low cost per acre of establishing duck food plants indicates that this type of development is practical for beaver ponds in central Alabama.

Duck Food Habits in Southwestern Louisiana Marshes Following a Hurricane

On the morning of June 27, 1957, hurricane Audrey struck the Southwestern Louisiana Gulf Coast with a force completely unequaled in memory of those who live in the region. The storm resulted in disastrous losses of human life and property in Cameron, Iberia and Vermilion Parishes. Great numbers of wild and domestic mammals, birds and reptiles were drowned in the marshes. According to Yancey (1958) water level readings reached 11.3 feet above sea level and winds exceeded 100 m.p.h. In general the marshes are only about 1 to 2 feet above sea level and the effects of the hurricane resulted in complete inundation by waters from 7.3 to 10.3 feet in depth for a great distance inland from the coast. The normal tidal range is 1.5 to 2.0 feet. The highest elevations, that is, stranded beaches, Indian mounds and levees, were submerged beneath the wind-driven tide. Large mats of vegetation were torn loose from the marsh floor and deposited in bayous, lakes, and in long wind rows at the upper reaches of the flood tide or swept into the Gulf by the receding water. This caused a large increase in the acreage of open water in the marsh. The marsh had been saturated by frequent rains preceding the hurricane. This condition plus continued heavy rains following the storm alleviated much of the damage that would have been caused by inundation with salt water. Above-normal water levels which remained in the marsh throughout the summer and fall resulted in an even greater acreage of open water. These high water conditions were detrimental to the production of fur animals and to livestock grazing. The immediate value of much of the marsh was greatly reduced for waterfowl since many food producing plants were scoured out by debris and currents. Nevertheless, much growth was made after the storm and by the time migrant waterfowl arrived the marsh was again partially productive.

Status and Population Trend in Fox Squirrels on Fringe Range, Colorado

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. Eighth Edition. New York: Amer. Book Co. 1,632pp. KORSCHGEN, L. J. 1955. Fall foods of waterfowl in Missouri. Mo. Cons. Comm., P-R Series No. 14. 41pp. MARTmN, A. C. 1949. Procedures in wildlife food studies. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Leaflet 325. 10pp. ----, N. HOTCHKISS, F. M. UHLER, AND W. S. BOURN. 1953. Classification of wetlands of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept.: Wildl. No. 20. 14pp. . , AND F. M. UHLER. 1939. Food of game ducks in the United States and Canada. U.S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull. 634. 156pp. 1, H. S. ZIM, AND A. L. NELSON. 1951. American wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill. 500pp. SINGLETON, J. R. 1953. Texas coastal waterfowl survey. Austin: Texas Game and Fish Comm. FA Report Series, No. 11. 128pp. SMALL, J. K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. New York: John Kunkel Small. 1,554pp.

Food of Wood Ducks in Maine

Little specific information concerning the food eaten by wood ducks (Aix sponsa) is available. Populations of these birds have been relatively low. For many years they were completely protected, and even today special regulations restrict the shooting of wood ducks. This situation has made it difficult to study their food habits in detail. During the period from 1938 to 1953, stomachs (gizzard and gullet) from wood ducks were submitted to the Maine Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit by state game wardens, hunters, and field personnel of the Department of Inland Fisheries and Game. This report summarizes the results of the analysis of these stomachs.

A Method for Obtaining Sage Grouse Age and Sex Ratios from Wings

GASHWILER, J. S. 1949. The effect of spring muskrat trapping on waterfowl in Maine. Jour. Wildl. Mgt., 13: 183-188. MARTIN, A. C. and F. M. UHLER. 1939. Food of game ducks in the United States and Canada. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 634. 156 pp. MENDALL, H. L. 1949. Food habits in relation to black duck management in Maine. Jour. Wildl. Mgt., 13: 64-101. Accepted for publication January 27, 1954.

The Use of Rotenone to Remove Rough Fish for the Purpose of Improving Migratory Waterfowl Refuge Areas

Along the shores of Sandusky Bay in Ohio some shallow lakes and marshlands were developed into excellent refuge areas for migratory waterfowl. In Middle Harbor, a marsh which had provided a resting place for thousands of wild ducks during the fall, a large population of carp developed. The value as a waterfowl refuge decreased steadily as the population of carp increased. Therefore, it seemed that if the carp could be removed that the aquatic vegetation which originally existed in the marsh would again flourish, and the food for wild ducks would again become abundant. This theory was tested in a small way in a small marsh covering about one half acre, using rotenone in a manner somewhat like that described by Siegler and Pillsbury (J. Wildl. Mgt., 10: 308-316, 1946). Within two weeks an excellent bloom of algae had developed and the water became clear. Since the area of Middle Harbor was 250 acres, the problem of application was difficult. A helicopter was used to apply the rotenone on October 6, 1948 and proved to be ideal for this purpose. This is believed to be the first use of a helicopter to apply rotenone emulsion for fish control. METHOD OF APPLICATION

Muskrat Investigations in Texas

BELLROSE, F. C., JR. 1944. Waterfowl hunting in Illinois: its status and problems. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey, Biol. Notes, 17: 35 pp., illus. (processed). BELLROSE, F. C., JR., and H. G. ANDERSON. 1943. Preferential rating of duck food plants. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey, Bul., 22: 416-433, illus. CLO, W. E. 1943. Wildlife harvest survey of Illinois. Pittman-Robertson Quart., 3 (4): 175-176. ERRINGTON, P. L. 1937. Food habits of the red fox in Iowa. Amer. Wildl., 26(1): 46, 13. 1936. What is the meaning of predation? Smithsonian Inst., Ann. Rept., 1936: 243-252. GILES, LEROY W. 1939. Fall food habits of raccoons in central Iowa. Jour. Mammalogy, 20: 68-70. HAMILTON, W. J., JR. 1939. American mammals. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 434 pp., illus. (pp. 115-165). 1940. The summer food of minks and raccoons on the Montezuma Marsh, New York. Journ. Wildl. Mgt., 4: 80-84. JUDD, S. D. 1905. The grouse and wild turkeys of the United States and their economic value. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., Bul., 24: 55 pp., illus. (p. 51) MCATEE, W. L. 1932. Effectiveness in nature of the so-called protective adaptations in the animal kingdom, chiefly as illustrated by the food habits of Nearctic birds. Smithsonian Inst., Misc. Coll., 85(7): 1-201. THoMPSON, D. H., and G. W. BENNETT. 1938. Lake management reports. 1. Horseshoe Lake near Cairo, Illinois. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv., Biol. Notes, 8: 6 pp., illus. YEAGER, L. E., and H. G. ANDERSON. 1944. Some effects of flooding and waterfowl concentration on a refuge area in central Illinois. Amer. Midl. Nat., 31: 159-178, illus.

Wild Rice in Minnesota

Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) is an aquatic grass of the Tribe Zizanieae which produces grain valued as food for waterfowl and as a table delicacy for mankind. It is a native plant and not the ancestor of the cultivated rice of commerce. Wild rice grows throughout the eastern half of the United States and adjoining portions of Canada (Hitchcock, 1935), butis more abundant in central and northern Minnesota than in other parts of its range. Minnesota wild rice stands are autumn feeding grounds for waterfowl on the Mississippi flyway. Martin and Uhler (1939) report that this rice formed 5.10 per cent of the food in the stomachs of many game ducks taken in the eastern United States, and Morse (1941) found it made more than 50 per cent of the food for wild ducks on some Minnesota lakes in autumn. Wild rice has long been gathered for food by the Minnesota Indians and at present is harvested in considerable amounts by both Indians and whites.

Duck Food Plants of the Illinois River Valley

For the past 5 years the necessity for improvement of natural food beds in the Illinois River valley has been apparent.

Food of Game Ducks in the United States and Canada

Food of Game Ducks in the United States and Canada

Food of Game Ducks

VARIOUS causes have contributed to reduce, to a serious extent in some cases, the numbers of game ducks in the United States and Canada, and the interest of the public and the self-interest of the multitude of shooters alike demand that measures should be taken for the encouragement and multiplication of the duck population. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has responded to the demand by the publication of a pamphlet (Washington, D.C.: Tech. Bull. No. 634; 1939) of 156 pages and 153 plates, with the aim of spreading dependable information on which programmes for the improvement of breeding and feeding grounds may be based. To minimize waste of funds and loss of effort through the introduction of unsuitable foods, it is essential that the important plant and animal foods of the various species be known and that consideration be given to the range of particular species and environmental and other limiting factors. By making use of data accumulated through many years by the Biological Survey, the authors, A. C. Martin and F. M. Uhler, have presented a thorough-going treatise which from three aspects gives a lead to duck conservation and propagation. The first section presents a census of foods, based upon analyses of nearly 8,000 stomachs or gullets of eighteen species of game ducks, and indicates the regions in the United States where each food is preferred. The second part, by means of photographs and concise descriptions, is designed to facilitate recognition of these foods; and the third part contains practical suggestions on the propagation of the food of waterfowl and the development of feeding grounds.

Cottam, Martin and Uhler on Duck Foods Food Habits of North American Diving Ducks Clarence Cottam Food of Game Ducks in the United States and Canada A. C. Martin F. M. Uhler

Cottam, Martin and Uhler on Duck Foods Food Habits of North American Diving Ducks Clarence Cottam Food of Game Ducks in the United States and Canada A. C. Martin F. M. Uhler

FOOD OF DUCKS AND COOTS AT SWAN LAKE, BRITISH COLUMBIA

A study of the autumn food habits of ducks and coots at Swan lake, British Columbia, based on the examination of 136 stomachs and on co-related field work, indicates the following conclusions: pond ducks had eaten 78% plant material, 12% Chara, and 10% animal organisms; the food of diving ducks was 65% plant material, 31% Chara, and 15% animal matter; while that of coots was 97% Chara and 3% plant material. Chara is the dominant growth in the lake. It is produced in unlimited quantities so that the food requirements of coots do not seriously compete with those of ducks.

Wetmore on the Ducks of the Bear River Marshes, Utah Wild Ducks and Duck Foods of the Bear River Marshes Dr. Wetmore

Wetmore on the Ducks of the Bear River Marshes, Utah Wild Ducks and Duck Foods of the Bear River Marshes Dr. Wetmore

Some Publications of the Bureau of Biological Survey during 1915 Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer F. E. L. Beal Preliminary Census of the Birds of the United States W. W. Cooke Eleven Important Wild Duck Foods W. L. McAtee Mortality among Waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, Utah Alex Wetmore Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United

Some Publications of the Bureau of Biological Survey during 1915 Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer F. E. L. Beal Preliminary Census of the Birds of the United States W. W. Cooke Eleven Important Wild Duck Foods W. L. McAtee Mortality among Waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, Utah Alex Wetmore Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United

The Food of Wild Ducks

The Food of Wild Ducks