Food-allergic Individuals Research Articles

Mast cell heterogeneity underlies different manifestations of food allergy in mice.

Food can trigger a diverse array of symptoms in food allergic individuals from isolated local symptoms affecting skin or gut to multi-system severe reactions (systemic anaphylaxis). Although we know that gastrointestinal and systemic manifestations of food allergy are mediated by tissue mast cells (MCs), it is not clear why allergen exposure by the oral route can result in such distinct clinical manifestations. Our aim was to assess the contribution of mast cell subsets to different manifestations of food allergy. We used two common models of IgE-mediated food allergy, one resulting in systemic anaphylaxis and the other resulting in acute gastrointestinal symptoms, to study the immune basis of allergic reactions. We used responders and non-responders in each model system, as well as naïve controls to identify the association of mast cell activation with clinical reactivity rather than sensitization. Systemic anaphylaxis was uniquely associated with activation of connective tissue mast cells (identified by release of mouse mast cell protease (MMCP) -7 into the serum) and release of histamine, while activation of mucosal mast cells (identified by release of MMCP-1 in the serum) did not correlate with symptoms. Gastrointestinal manifestations of food allergy were associated with an increase of MMCP-1-expressing mast cells in the intestine, and evidence of both mucosal and connective tissue mast cell activation. The data presented in this paper demonstrates that mast cell heterogeneity is an important contributor to manifestations of food allergy, and identifies the connective tissue mast cell subset as key in the development of severe systemic anaphylaxis.

European Regulations for Labeling Requirements for Food Allergens and Substances Causing Intolerances: History and Future

Food allergies are increasing globally, including numbers of allergens, the sensitization rate, and the prevalence rate. To protect food-allergic individuals in the community, food allergies need to be appropriately managed. This paper describes current Australian food allergen management practices. In Australia, the prevalence of food allergies, the anaphylaxis rate, and the fatal anaphylaxis rate are among the highest in the world. Interagency and stakeholder collaboration is facilitated and enhanced as Australia moves through past, current, and ongoing food allergen challenges. As a result, Australia has been a global leader in regulating the labeling of common allergens in packaged foods and their disclosure in foods not required to bear a label. Moreover, the food industry in Australia and New Zealand has developed a unique food allergen risk management tool, the Voluntary Incidental Trace Allergen Labelling program, which is managed by the Allergen Bureau. This paper summarizes insights and information provided by the major stakeholders involved to protect food-allergic consumers from any allergic reaction. Stakeholders include government; consumer protection, regulation, and enforcement agencies; the food industry; and food allergen testing and food allergen/allergy research bodies in Australia. The ongoing goal of all stakeholders in food allergen management in Australia is to promote best practice food allergen management procedures and provide a wide choice of foods, while enabling allergic consumers to manage their food allergies and reduce the risk of an allergic reaction.

Interference with swine DNA limits applicability of a fish PCR system in foodstuff

Ingestion of fish may exert severe health effects in food-allergic individuals. Sensitive analytical methods are required for the surveillance of the obligation to label fish as a potentially allergenic ingredient in foodstuff. Recently a sensitive multi-copy PCR method has been published to detect a broad spectrum of fish species by amplification of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene. The performance of this method in real-life samples also containing DNA from other sources such as plants or animals has not been studied yet. The applicability domain of the PCR, especially for allergen detection, is therefore still unclear. Here we assessed the ability of the PCR system to detect fish in a background of excess animal and plant DNA. The results demonstrate satisfying performance with various fish species but pronounced PCR inhibition by swine DNA. Subsequent analyses revealed homology of one PCR primer to the swine 12S rRNA gene, causing competition during the PCR reaction and thus raising the limit of detection by two orders of magnitude. In conclusion, the tested PCR system is suited for fish detection in plant matrices, but not in matrices containing excess animal, especially swine, DNA. Application of the PCR system for allergen detection is therefore not recommended.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA).

Food allergy is a public health concern especially after recognizing its constantly increased prevalence and severity. Despite careful reading of food ingredient statements, food allergic individuals may experience reactions caused by "hidden", "masked", or "contaminated" proteins that are known major allergens. Many techniques have been developed to detect even small traces of food allergens, for clinical or laboratory purposes. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is one of the best validated and most routinely used immunoassay in allergy research, in allergy diagnosis in allergy-related quality control in various industries. Although as a technique it has been implemented for the last 45 years, the evolution in biochemistry allowed the development of ultrasensitive ELISA variations that are capable of measuring quantities in the scale of picograms, rendering ELISA attractive, robust, and very famous.

IL-9-producing cells in the development of IgE-mediated food allergy.

Food allergy is a harmful immune reaction driven by uncontrolled type 2 immune responses. Considerable evidence demonstrates the key roles of mast cells, IgE, and TH2 cytokines in mediating food allergy. However, this evidence provides limited insight into why only some, rather than all, food allergic individuals are prone to develop life-threatening anaphylaxis. Clinical observations suggest that patients sensitized to food through the skin early in life may later develop severe food allergies. Aberrant epidermal thymic stromal lymphopoietin and interleukin (IL) 33 production and genetic predisposition can initiate an allergic immune response mediated by dendritic cells and CD4+TH2 cells in inflamed skin. After allergic sensitization, intestinal IL-25 and food ingestion enhance concerted interactions between type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and CD4+TH2 cells, which perpetuate allergic reactions from the skin to the gut. IL-4 and cross-linking of antigen/IgE/FcεR complexes induce emigrated mast cell progenitors to develop into the multi-functional IL-9-producing mucosal mast cells, which produce prodigious amounts of IL-9 and mast cell mediators to drive intestinal mastocytosis in an autocrine loop. ILC2s and TH9 cells may also serve as alternative cellular sources of IL-9 to augment the amplification of intestinal mastocytosis, which is the key cellular checkpoint in developing systemic anaphylaxis. These findings provide a plausible view of how food allergy develops and progresses in a stepwise manner and that atopic signals, dietary allergen ingestion, and inflammatory cues are fundamental in promoting life-threatening anaphylaxis. This information will aid in improving diagnosis and developing more effective therapies for food allergy-triggered anaphylaxis.

Influence of health literacy and trust in online information on food allergy quality of life and self-efficacy

BackgroundHealth literacy among caregivers of food allergic individuals (FAIs) is poorly described, as are the information sources sought regarding food allergy. ObjectiveTo assess the association among health literacy, trust in online sources of information, and food allergy quality of life (QoL) and self-efficacy. MethodsAn online survey was administered to caregivers of FAIs assessing health literacy (Newest Vital Sign [NVS] and the eHeals Internet health literacy index), trust in online information (Hargittai Internet credibility index and Annenberg National Health Communication Survey [ANHCS]), QoL (Food Allergy Quality of Life Parental Burden), and self-efficacy (Food Allergy Self-Efficacy Questionnaire [FASEQ]). ResultsAmong 1562 respondents, 94.6% (NVS) and 61.1% (eHeals) had good health literacy, and 58% had high levels of trust in online information (both indexes). The NVS correlated poorly with the eHeals and Hargittai indexes. Hargittai and eHeals scores were moderately correlated (r = 0.37, P < .001). A high NVS score was significantly associated with reported anaphylaxis and high eHeals and Hargittai scores with advocacy group membership. In unadjusted analyses, FAQL-PB scores were worse with high Hargiatti scores (P = .05) and ANHCS scores (P < .001). The FASEQ scores were better with high ANHCS scores (P = .02) and eHeals scores (P < .001). In an adjusted regression, high trust in online information (both indexes), worsening FASEQ score, blog readership, advocacy group membership, caring for multiple FAIs, and having milk or egg allergy were associated with worse FAQL-PB scores. ConclusionIn this sample, health literacy and trust in online information sources were high, with high trust in online information sources negatively associated with QoL. Advocacy group membership had an independent negative association with QoL.

The Emperor Has No Symptoms: The Risks of a Blanket Approach to Using Epinephrine Autoinjectors for All Allergic Reactions

Fatal anaphylaxis in humans is rare and unpredictable. We note a trend to provide allergic individuals with care plans that recommend immediate use of epinephrine autoinjectors if allergen ingestion is suspected, even in the absence of any allergic symptoms, without any supporting evidence base. Instructions to use an autoinjector device, irrespective of reaction severity and especially when symptoms are actually absent, are likely to add to parental and patient anxiety. Of greater concern is the possibility of epinephrine being administered “too early” to treat initial, mild symptoms that then progress to severe anaphylaxis. It is not hard to visualize a scenario where one or both epinephrine autoinjectors have been deployed for mild symptoms, yet the reaction progresses to a severe reaction and no further epinephrine is available for administration. Epinephrine needs to be available as a rescue treatment for anaphylaxis, potentially buying valuable minutes while emergency medical services are activated to attend. Food-allergic individuals and their carers need to be provided with more constructive strategies and support than merely being told to “use your pen.”

Food allergy quality of life and living with food allergy.

Food allergy quality of life (QoL) has emerged as a key outcome to understand how food-allergic individuals and their families live with disease. Food allergy QoL has been measured since the early 2000's, but in the past 10-12 years, the advent of disease-specific indices has better defined the daily psychological burden of living with disease, which is distinct from measuring quality life in other chronic illnesses where affected patients suffer from more physical symptoms which may cause measurable shifts in disease status. Multiple recent studies from the United States, Europe, and Australia have better detailed relationships between food allergy QoL and key aspects, such as the individual food allergen, allergic comorbidity, reaction severity, reaction treatment, social determinants of health status, health beliefs and reaction perception, individual facets of the individual or caregiver, potential disease treatment, and disease management. With the advent of clinical trials of potentially disease treating or curative therapy, QoL has become a central outcome to demonstrate the efficacy of such potential products. Though food allergy QoL has emerged as a recognized outcome, more is needed to enhance life with disease, and the field lacks specific tools beyond potential therapies to target and help repair poor QoL in patients and their caregivers.

Using Food and Nutritional Strategies to Induce Tolerance in Food-Allergic Children.

Food allergy is an important and increasing public health problem worldwide, affecting predominantly infants and young children. There is an urgent need to develop effective treatment strategies to restore oral tolerance in food-allergic individuals. Among diverse research approaches, those involving native or heat-modified food proteins are most advanced and are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. Extensively heated (baked) milk and egg diets have already been adopted in clinical practice and benefit the majority of milk- and egg-allergic children. Oral, sublingual and epicutaneous immunotherapy with native foods remain in the sphere of clinical research with encouraging data suggesting that they may induce desensitization in a large proportion of treated patients and potentially permanent tolerance following an adequately long period of treatment. Synbiotics appear to have the most beneficial role in the prevention of food allergy; Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG may promote the development of tolerance to milk in allergic infants.

Building Trust: Children Experiences with Food Allergies at Summer Camp

Introduction: The objective of this study was to explore the experiences and perceptions of children with food allergies at summer camp. Methods: Qualitative draw-and-tell interviews were conducted with 14 food allergic individuals aged 5 - 12 years to capture their lived experience with food allergies at summer camp. Results: Four key interdependent themes: trust, accommodation, proactive parents and coping strategies were identified in how children perceive their food allergies in unregulated summer camp environments.

Food allergy population thresholds: an evaluation of the dosing scheme and number of oral food challenges on the accuracy of threshold dose studies

The availability of clinically established DBPCFC minimal eliciting doses determined in food-allergic individuals is increasing and previous work has shown these data can be used to determine population based reference doses for allergen risk management. Despite the large amount of data for peanut, milk, egg and hazelnut, EU and US public health authorities have not established population thresholds for any of the allergenic foods. In the absence of regulatory guidance regarding thresholds, food producers have attempted to manage risk through the widespread application of precautionary contain labelling. In turn, food-allergic consumer quality-of-life has decreased and some food-allergic individuals are ignoring these advisory statements. This study aimed to assess the effects of the number of individual threshold doses and the dosing scheme intervals on the accuracy of estimates of population thresholds for allergenic foods. A simulation study was performed to evaluate the effects of sample size (N=20-750) and dosing scheme (derivatives of the EuroPrevall protocol) on the accuracy of the resulting threshold distribution curve. The simulations were based on clinical data on individual subject thresholds from peanut, egg and soy flour allergic individuals. The relationships between sample size, dosing scheme and the employed statistical distribution on the one hand and the accuracy of estimation of population based eliciting doses on the other hand were obtained. The largest relative gains in accuracy were seen when sample size increases from N=20 to N=60. Additionally, proper allocation of the dosing steps is important. So, while the EuroPrevall dosing scheme is a good start, the scheme may need revision for a specific allergen as more data become available. These results may guide risk assessors in determining minimum sample sizes for new studies and in the allocation of proper dosing schemes for allergens in provocation studies. In turn, these results will help determine dataset requirements when establishing population thresholds and reference doses leading to improved allergen risk management of food products.

Treatment of allergic reactions and quality of life among caregivers of food-allergic children

BackgroundCaregivers of food-allergic individuals (FAIs) have decreased quality of life (QoL). The effects of epinephrine administration on QoL are poorly understood. ObjectiveTo investigate the relation between QoL and epinephrine use. MethodsA de-identified 50-question online survey was administered to caregivers of FAIs across the United States through Web site, email, and social media networks of 2 national food allergy advocacy groups. QoL was assessed using the Food Allergy Quality of Life–Parental Burden questionnaire. The effect of prior epinephrine administration on QoL was analyzed using linear regression. ResultsOf 3,541 respondents, 35.6% reported their FAIs received epinephrine. Mean Food Allergy Quality of Life–Parental Burden scores were higher (worse QoL) in those reporting FAIs receiving epinephrine (3.07 vs 2.84, P < .001), anaphylaxis (3.01 vs 2.75, P < .001), multiple food allergies (3.16 vs 2.67, P < .001), and multiple food allergies and epinephrine use (3.24 vs 2.57, P < .001) vs those who did not. In a regression model, reported epinephrine use; anaphylaxis; multiple FAIs; multiple food allergies; and egg or milk, wheat or soy, or seafood allergy (vs peanut or tree nut allergy) were significantly associated with an increased (worse) QoL score. Caregiver college education and increasing FAI age were associated with a decreased QoL score (improved QoL). An interaction was noted between reported epinephrine use and anaphylaxis and was associated with a decreased QoL score. ConclusionThe effect of epinephrine use on caregiver QoL is conditional and depends on reaction severity. Having multiple FAIs and FAIs with multiple food allergies was associated with worsening QoL. Further studies are needed to better understand the effects of treating an allergic reaction on caregiver QoL.

Tolerance to Allergenic Foods Following Food Oral Immunotherapy (FOIT)

RationaleFOIT treatment desensitizes most food allergic individuals, but the achievement of tolerance is uncertain. We report on 21 selected patients who underwent food challenges (FC) after FOIT was withheld for at least 30 days.MethodsRetrospective record review of FOIT patients approved by the North Texas IRB. After 453-1752 days of maintenance dosing selected patients stopped ingesting the allergenic food for 1 month and then were subjected to an open, graded FC.Results19/21 patients passed the FC (FCP) (5/5 egg, 6/7 milk, 7/8 peanut, 1/1 cashew). 15/19 FCP and 0/2 who failed the FC (FCF) had a history of anaphylaxis to the allergenic food prior to starting FOIT. Median IgE (kU/L) before beginning FOIT for FCP were egg 5.04 (0.37-49.97), milk 5.23 (1.52-10.93), peanut 10.39 (2.44-61.33), cashew 4.53; and for FCF: milk 54.24, peanut >100. Median IgE values before FC for FCP were egg 0.35 (0.1-15.9), milk 0.17 (0.08-0.3), peanut 0.96 (0.08-7.38), and cashew 1.14; and milk 1.16, peanut 11.5 for FCF. There were 0.26 epinephrine treated reactions per patient (ETRpp) during FOIT escalation and 0.05 ETRpp during maintenance for FCP. There were 2 ETRs in escalation and none in maintenance for the 2 FCF patients.Conclusions90% of selected FOIT patients achieved tolerance to their allergenic food. These data suggest that patients with high pre-OIT IgE values, high pre-FC values, and more ETRs during escalation are less likely to pass FC. More FOIT patients will need to undergo FC before meaningful conclusions may be drawn concerning tolerance. RationaleFOIT treatment desensitizes most food allergic individuals, but the achievement of tolerance is uncertain. We report on 21 selected patients who underwent food challenges (FC) after FOIT was withheld for at least 30 days. FOIT treatment desensitizes most food allergic individuals, but the achievement of tolerance is uncertain. We report on 21 selected patients who underwent food challenges (FC) after FOIT was withheld for at least 30 days. MethodsRetrospective record review of FOIT patients approved by the North Texas IRB. After 453-1752 days of maintenance dosing selected patients stopped ingesting the allergenic food for 1 month and then were subjected to an open, graded FC. Retrospective record review of FOIT patients approved by the North Texas IRB. After 453-1752 days of maintenance dosing selected patients stopped ingesting the allergenic food for 1 month and then were subjected to an open, graded FC. Results19/21 patients passed the FC (FCP) (5/5 egg, 6/7 milk, 7/8 peanut, 1/1 cashew). 15/19 FCP and 0/2 who failed the FC (FCF) had a history of anaphylaxis to the allergenic food prior to starting FOIT. Median IgE (kU/L) before beginning FOIT for FCP were egg 5.04 (0.37-49.97), milk 5.23 (1.52-10.93), peanut 10.39 (2.44-61.33), cashew 4.53; and for FCF: milk 54.24, peanut >100. Median IgE values before FC for FCP were egg 0.35 (0.1-15.9), milk 0.17 (0.08-0.3), peanut 0.96 (0.08-7.38), and cashew 1.14; and milk 1.16, peanut 11.5 for FCF. There were 0.26 epinephrine treated reactions per patient (ETRpp) during FOIT escalation and 0.05 ETRpp during maintenance for FCP. There were 2 ETRs in escalation and none in maintenance for the 2 FCF patients. 19/21 patients passed the FC (FCP) (5/5 egg, 6/7 milk, 7/8 peanut, 1/1 cashew). 15/19 FCP and 0/2 who failed the FC (FCF) had a history of anaphylaxis to the allergenic food prior to starting FOIT. Median IgE (kU/L) before beginning FOIT for FCP were egg 5.04 (0.37-49.97), milk 5.23 (1.52-10.93), peanut 10.39 (2.44-61.33), cashew 4.53; and for FCF: milk 54.24, peanut >100. Median IgE values before FC for FCP were egg 0.35 (0.1-15.9), milk 0.17 (0.08-0.3), peanut 0.96 (0.08-7.38), and cashew 1.14; and milk 1.16, peanut 11.5 for FCF. There were 0.26 epinephrine treated reactions per patient (ETRpp) during FOIT escalation and 0.05 ETRpp during maintenance for FCP. There were 2 ETRs in escalation and none in maintenance for the 2 FCF patients. Conclusions90% of selected FOIT patients achieved tolerance to their allergenic food. These data suggest that patients with high pre-OIT IgE values, high pre-FC values, and more ETRs during escalation are less likely to pass FC. More FOIT patients will need to undergo FC before meaningful conclusions may be drawn concerning tolerance. 90% of selected FOIT patients achieved tolerance to their allergenic food. These data suggest that patients with high pre-OIT IgE values, high pre-FC values, and more ETRs during escalation are less likely to pass FC. More FOIT patients will need to undergo FC before meaningful conclusions may be drawn concerning tolerance.

International survey of knowledge of food-induced anaphylaxis.

Studies show that anaphylaxis is under-recognized and epinephrine (adrenaline) is under-used by medical personnel as well as patients and their families. This study assesses the knowledge of food-induced anaphylaxis diagnosis and management across different populations of providers and caregivers and other interested respondents. An online survey embedded in a case discussion of food-induced anaphylaxis was distributed by Medscape to registered members. A total of 7822 responders who started the activity chose to answer at least some of the questions presented (response rate 39.5%). Over 80% of responders in all groups correctly identified the case of anaphylaxis with prominent skin and respiratory symptoms; however, only 55% correctly recognized the case without skin symptoms as anaphylaxis. Only 23% of responders correctly selected risk factors for anaphylaxis, with physicians significantly more likely to choose the correct answers as compared to allied health, other health professionals, and medical students (p < 0.001). Ninety-five percent selected epinephrine (adrenaline) as the most appropriate treatment for anaphylaxis, and 81% correctly indicated that there are no absolute contraindications for epinephrine (adrenaline) in the setting of anaphylaxis. When presented a case of a child with no documented history of allergies who has symptoms of anaphylaxis, more physicians than any other group chose to administer stock epinephrine (adrenaline) (73% vs. 60%, p < 0.001). Specific knowledge deficits for food-induced anaphylaxis persist across all groups. Further educational efforts should be aimed not only at the medical community but also for the entire caregiver community and general public, to optimize care for food allergic individuals.

Food allergy in children

Food allergy affects up to 10% of preschool children, and continues to increase in prevalence in many countries, resulting in a major public health issue, with practical implications for the food industry, educational establishments and healthcare systems. The need to distinguish between food allergen sensitization and true clinical reactivity remains crucial in diagnosis, often requiring formal food challenge to avoid unnecessary dietary elimination. Epicutaneous exposure in the absence of oral tolerance induction during infancy may be an important risk factor for food allergy. Mounting evidence suggests that for milk and egg allergens, many children are able to tolerate the food when heat-modified, and that this may hasten resolution of the allergy. These developments will hopefully result in a lower adverse impact on quality of life for food-allergic individuals and their families.

Altered T Helper 17 Responses in Children with Food Allergy

Background: While a central role for the T helper (Th) 1/Th2 axis in food allergy has been established, the Th17 response in food-allergic humans has not been addressed. Methods: Th17 responses in 18 peanut-allergic children, who were also allergic to at least one additional food allergen, were assessed relative to 15 age-matched healthy controls. To account for the atopy background in the allergic children, 7 atopic, but not food-allergic, individuals and their age-matched controls were included in this study. PBMCs were analyzed by flow cytometry ex vivo or were stimulated in vitro with peanut allergens, gliadin, or tetanus toxoid followed by analysis of proliferation and cytokine production in antigen-responsive cells. Results: We observed a significantly lower interleukin (IL) 17 production in CD4+ T cells of food-allergic individuals ex vivo (p < 0.02). In vitro, we found that IL-17 production in CD4+ T cells in response to all antigens tested was significantly impaired in food-allergic subjects compared to healthy controls (Ara: p < 0.005; gliadin: p < 0.004; TT: p < 0.03). No significant differences were observed between atopic and nonatopic individuals with no food allergy. Conclusion: Our results thus reveal a systemic, non-allergen-specific defect in Th17 responses to antigen stimulation in food allergic individuals, suggesting a role for Th17 cells in the control of food allergy and implicating IL-17 as a potential biomarker for tolerance to food antigens.

Importance of establishing threshold levels for food allergens

The concept of a threshold for provoking potential allergic reactivity is an important research target to pursue over the next 5 years. A food allergen threshold is defined as the eliciting dose or minimal quantified amount of ingested allergen that will provoke an immunologic (ie, IgE-mediated) reaction.1 Defining such a zone will benefit multiple sectors of society: food allergic individuals, their caretakers, the food industry, policymakers, and government officials.1–3 This is a necessary strategy given the constraints of the current labeling laws and the reality that such levels may exist, can be defined at individual and population levels, and might improve quality of life through expanding food choices.

Characteristics and purchasing behaviours of food-allergic consumers and those who buy food for them in Great Britain.

BackgroundBuying behaviours of food-allergic consumers can affect the risk they incur. An online survey was undertaken to understand the characteristics and buying behaviours of food-allergic consumers in Great Britain (GB) and people buying food for them.MethodsDescriptive study of food-allergic individuals in GB and their buying behaviours, based on a survey of 500 food-allergic consumers and 500 people buying for allergic individuals.ResultsFruit and vegetables were the most commonly mentioned food allergens for adults, cows’ milk in school-age children and eggs in younger children. 45% of respondents reported a formal diagnosis, almost half (48%) by a specialist. Significantly (P < 0.0001) more respondents reporting severe symptoms were likely to be formally diagnosed, but most reactions remained unreported. Nearly 2/3 of respondents always read product labels first time, however only 1/3 on every occasion. Only a third of respondents always avoided products with 'may contain’ labels. Respondents reporting severe symptoms, albeit still a minority, showed significantly (P = 0.0026) more cautious buying behaviours.ConclusionsAlthough self-reported, the pattern of food allergy reflects other studies. A minority of food-allergic individuals in GB, even among those reporting severe symptoms, have a formal diagnosis and most never come to the attention of health services, suggesting that food allergies are under-estimated while more severe reactors are over-represented in GB clinic populations. A substantial proportion of respondents regularly take risks when purchasing food including those reporting severe reactions, confirming that current application of precautionary labelling to mitigate and communicate risk is of limited effectiveness. Furthermore the failure of most food-allergic consumers to read labels on every occasion highlights the importance of thinking beyond legal compliance when designing labels, for example when adding an allergen to a product that previously did not contain it, the change should be flagged on the front of the pack to alert allergic consumers.

Guideline fever

It is well known that many aspects of food allergy are lacking sufficient research and publication. Practising evidence-based medicine in this field is, therefore, a particular challenge. Internationally, there is considerable variation in practices and no agreed treatment pathways. The time was right to review the evidence and seek the views of experts in the field, industry and food allergic individuals to develop guidance for clinical practice and to plan future research. The purpose of this review was to summarize points of agreement and discrepancy in the recently published Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy, US NIAID and UK NICE guidelines. The publication of the three guideline documents on food allergies gives clinicians, scientists, industry, governments and patients the opportunity to review the information in a concise format and appreciate the role of clinical expertise in decision making. The guidelines covered all aspects of food allergy: prevalence and natural history, diagnosis, management and treatment and other aspects such as vaccinations. The guidelines summarized not only our current evidence base but also gaps in our knowledge. Use of these guidelines would facilitate high quality standardized care and indicate the direction of future research.

Chinese Herbal Therapy for the Treatment of Food Allergy

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used in China to treat various diseases for thousands of years. Given its reputed effectiveness, low cost, and favorable safety profile, TCM is attracting great interest in Western societies as a source of therapy for an array of illnesses, including allergies and asthma. Although food allergy has not been described in the TCM literature, a novel treatment for food allergy, named the food allergy herbal formula-2 (FAHF-2), was developed using TCM principles. Using a well-characterized murine model of peanut allergy, FAHF-2 has been shown to be highly effective in providing long-term protection against peanut-induced anaphylaxis, with a high safety margin. Phase 1 human trials have demonstrated the safety of FAHF-2 in food allergic individuals. Currently, a phase 2 trial examining efficacy of FAHF-2 is on-going. Other TCMs also show a potential for treating food allergies in preclinical studies.