Forest Conditions Research Articles

Exploring Forced Removals and Dispossession in the Dukuduku Forest, KwaZulu Natal, before and after 1994

AbstractGovernment‐sanctioned forced removals are a continuous theme in contemporary South Africa. This article examines four major phases of forced removals in the Dukuduku state forest – located in the Mtubatuba Municipality in northern KwaZulu Natal, South Africa – beginning in the 1930s. It places particular focus on the last phase of removals in the 1980s and 1990s, during the significant political period in South Africa in which there were talks between the liberation movements and the Nationalist government about transitioning to the new political dispensation. Land restitution efforts following the 1994 elections are explored, detailing the state's approach to addressing historical injustices related to land issues. The findings reveal that resistance was fuelled by conservationist imperatives that prioritised nature over human habitation and demonstrate that the policies of both apartheid and post‐apartheid governments have contributed to the destruction of a significant portion of this unique indigenous forest over the past five decades. The article advocates for a balanced land management approach that respects historical land claims and prioritises local needs alongside environmental preservation efforts.

L‐Band InSAR Snow Water Equivalent Retrieval Uncertainty Increases With Forest Cover Fraction

AbstractThere is a pressing need for global monitoring of snow water equivalent (SWE) at high spatiotemporal resolution, and L‐band (1–2 GHz) interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) holds promise. However, the technique has not seen extensive evaluation in forests. We evaluated this technique across varying forest canopy conditions using eight InSAR pairs collected at the Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado, USA by NASA UAVSAR during the 10‐week NASA SnowEx 2021 Campaign. Compared with in situ measurements, we found root mean squared errors (RMSEs) of 14–17 mm for SWE changes in forest cover fractions (FCF) < 0.40, but RMSEs increased to 33–40 mm at FCF > 0.50. Statistical distributions between normalized lidar snow depths and normalized UAVSAR SWE were similar at FCF < 0.5, but diverged at FCF > 0.50. Thus, the upcoming NISAR L‐band satellite has strong potential for global snowpack monitoring, including below sparse to moderate forest cover.

Large‐scale forest disturbance and associated management shape bird communities in Central European spruce forests

Abstract In Central Europe, natural forest disturbance is increasing due to climate change and the legacies of past forest management. The resulting early successional forest stages shape habitat conditions and availability for forest‐dwelling species. How disturbance, pre‐disturbance forest management such as beech underplanting in conifer stands and post‐disturbance management, such as salvage logging, shape biodiversity is poorly understood. In a large field study, we quantified how the large‐scale loss of mature spruce plantations after natural disturbance affects bird diversity and abundance in Central Europe and how this is moderated by pre‐ and post‐ disturbance management. In a Bayesian community distance sampling approach, we conducted field surveys on 182 plots in a stratified design, comparing bark beetle and windthrow disturbances as well as two management treatments, (i) underplanting with beech before the disturbance occurred versus no underplanting and (ii) salvage logging versus no post‐disturbance logging. We used undisturbed mature spruce plantations as a control. Bird diversity was higher in disturbed forests than in undisturbed spruce plantations and was affected little by management. Bayesian community distance sampling models revealed that responses were highly species‐specific: shrub‐associated birds profited from disturbance in general and reached highest densities where beech had been planted under the spruce canopy before the disturbance occurred, whereas open‐habitat and farmland birds reached higher densities on salvage‐logged sites. Only few typical species of coniferous forests persisted at disturbed sites. Synthesis and applications. With increasing forest disturbance, pre‐ and post‐disturbance management can promote target bird species. Shrub‐associated species can be promoted by underplanting, open habitat‐adapted species by salvage logging and species depending on vertical structures by no intervention. For maximising biodiversity benefits at a landscape scale, underrepresented management practices (no intervention) should be promoted to ensure a balanced forest management and to maintain diverse post‐disturbance bird communities.

Ecological assessment of forest stands in the Tsaritsyno Natural Historical Park

Parks and green areas in large cities are very important objects, not only for tourism and recreation, but they also perform important ecological functions, clean the air from gases and dust, create a favorable microclimate, and thus create an environmentally friendly framework in cities. The most important factor in the condition of green areas is the ecological condition of forest stands, which form the main green framework. The article considers the condition of forest stands in dependence on the landscape and intensity of recreational load on the territory of the Tsaritsyno Historical Park and its specificity as a specially protected natural area. The article presents the results of the forest stand assessment, identifies problem areas and areas with weakened stands, gives recommendations for plant care and minimizing the impact on weakened trees.

Forest vegetation increased across China’s carbon offset projects and positively impacted neighboring areas

As forest-based carbon offset programs gain increasing attention, quantifying their impacts beyond project boundaries remains an open issue, particularly in subtropical and temperate regions. Here we focus on the local spillover effects of 36 forest offset projects in China’s voluntary carbon market. Using matching and difference-in-difference analysis, we compare the forest status of the project areas and buffer zones to their reference areas. Results show overall positive forest gains of 2.25% to 4.25% in project sites, with neighboring areas seeing spillover gains of 0.91% to 1.60%, exhibiting heterogeneity in individual projects. Further analysis finds limited evidence of leakage, possibly due to China’s land policies and project features; instead, positive spillovers are facilitated by knowledge diffusion and information flow, supported by reduced wildfire activities and project application patterns. This study demonstrates that well-designed forest offset programs can yield benefits beyond their boundaries, providing insights for offset policy design and project implementation.

The Influence of the Spatial Co-Registration Error on the Estimation of Growing Stock Volume Based on Airborne Laser Scanning Metrics

Remote sensing (RS)-based forest inventories are becoming increasingly common in forest management. However, practical applications often require subsequent optimisation steps. One of the most popular RS-based forest inventory methods is the two-phase inventory with regression estimator, commonly referred to as the area-based approach (ABA). There are many sources of variation that contribute to the overall performance of this method. One of them, which is related to the core aspect of this method, is the spatial co-registration error between ground measurements and RS data. This error arises mainly from the imperfection of the methods for positioning the sample plots under the forest canopy. In this study, we investigated how this positioning accuracy affects the area-based growing stock volume (GSV) estimation under different forest conditions and sample plot radii. In order to analyse this relationship, an artificial co-registration error was induced in a series of simulations and various scenarios. The results showed that there were minimal differences in ABA inventory performance for displacements below 4 m for all stratification groups except for deciduous sites, where sub-metre plot positioning accuracy was justified, as site- and terrain-related factors had some influence on GSV estimation error (r up to 0.4). On the other hand, denser canopy and spatially homogeneous stands mitigated the negative aspects of weaker GNSS positioning capabilities under broadleaved forest types. In the case of RMSE, the results for plots smaller than 400 m2 were visibly inferior. The BIAS behaviour was less strict in this regard. Knowledge of the actual positioning accuracy as well as the co-registration threshold required for a particular stand type could help manage and optimise fieldwork, as well as better distinguish sources of statistical uncertainty.

Analysis of prevailing atmospheric conditions during wildfire events in the Indian Himalayan region

AbstractWildfire incidents have seen an exponential rise in the past few decades in India, particularly over the Indian Himalayan region, which has led to a huge loss of life and property. To mitigate and manage the impact of wildfires, a better understanding of key physical atmospheric processes conducive to the spread of wildfires is required. This study aims to analyze the atmospheric conditions associated with the propagation of wildfires in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand (India). For this, wildfire burned‐area data from the Uttarakhand (India) State Forest Department, in‐situ precipitation information from the India Meteorological Department, India, and atmospheric variables (temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture) from the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis v5 and Global Land Data Assimilation System datasets over the years 2000–2022 have been critically analyzed to infer the cause of the unprecedented spread of wildfires in Uttarakhand. The analysis suggests that the strength of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and Indian Ocean Dipole phases along with the precipitation pattern in the pre‐fire season due to western disturbances are dominant factors associated with the spread of fires. Further, the bimodal distribution of the vapor pressure deficit, having a peak during the fire season and post‐monsoon period, indicates increased dryness of fuels and increased susceptibility of vegetation to wildfires. These findings could be utilized to mitigate and manage the impacts of wildfire in the vulnerable Himalayan state.

Our employees in traditional and environmentally friendly logging: characteristics of forestry workhorses in Hungary

ABSTRACT Horse logging has many advantages over forestry machines, but it is less efficient, mainly depending on the breed and size of the horse. After reviewing the literature on the state and breeds of horses used for timber harvesting in Europe, we recorded the sex, age, height at withers (where the neck meets the back), girth size and shank circumference of the workhorses in the Hungarian state forests. Most loggers (37%) used crossbreeds of warm-blooded and cold-blooded horses, because of their pace, smaller size and easier maneuverability. Twenty-nine percent of the loggers used the Muraközi type, 14% the French cold-blooded (Percheron), and 11% the Hungarian cold-blooded. The reason for using cold-blooded types was their capacity, calmness, resistance and rare foot injuries. The disadvantages of the crossbreds were their speed and lighter size. Comparing the size of the horses assessed in the field with the literature data on the breeds, it is not possible to draw clear conclusions as to which breed would be more suitable for forestry work. Most (59%) of the horses used for logging are geldings, as they are reported to be easier to work with. Forestry use could play an important role in maintaining the population of the protected indigenous horse breeds, both Hungarian cold-blooded and Muraközi.

Фаутность еловых древостоев северо-таежного района Архангельской области

The results of studying the defectiveness of spruce forests in the northern taiga zone of the Arkhangelsk Region are presented. Defectiveness has a significant impact on the sanitary condition, marketability and sustainability of forest plantations. The study has been conducted from 2020 to 2023 using materials obtained from sample plots laid in mature spruce plantations, modal in terms of basic taxation parameters. Before starting the field work, the cartographic databases have been studied. The sample size has been determined by the variability of the taxational diameter of the main species and the experiment accuracy. In each test area, all trees have been enumerated by species, diameter at a height of 1.3 m and by condition categories. For each tree, the presence of defects affecting marketability and fruit bodies of wood-destroying fungi has been noted. To determine the age of the trees in the sample plot, core samples have been taken from the root collar. To study the patterns of the defectiveness spread and obtain mass material, statistical survey sites have been laid on fresh cuttings. When rot has been detected on the stump, the diameter of the rot has been measured and its type and stage have been determined. The age of the trees has been determined by the annual rings on the stumps. In the presence of rot, age has been determined by correlation with the diameter of the stump. The trees have then been grouped by their respective age classes. In the course of the research, defectiveness indicators have been studied and analyzed in various forest growth conditions. It has been revealed that with an increase in the age class, the occurrence of all defects increases. The most obvious dependence has been recorded for rots. The amount of rots varies from 5.1 to 29.0 %, depending on the type of forest growth conditions. The proportion of rots decreases with the deterioration of forest conditions. The most common wood-destroying fungus is the root sponge (Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref.). There is an increase in the incidence of wood-destroying fungi in trees with increasing diameter. The average stage of butt rot has been 2.8. The study of the defectiveness will improve the accuracy of assessing the resource potential of coniferous plantations in the Arkhangelsk Region.

Prospects for Oak Cultivation in Europe Under Changing Environmental Conditions and Increasing Pressure from Harmful Organisms

It is assumed that climate change (global warming) worsens the living conditions for conifers and at the same time favours the cultivation of deciduous trees, including oaks. In fact, in Poland, for example, many more oaks are now being planted as forest-forming tree species than in the 1980s and 1990s. However, the monitoring of the health status of European forests (according to the International Co-operation Project) does not confirm these optimistic assumptions, and oak has been cited as one of the most damaged tree species in terms of defoliation in recent decades. The prospects for oak cultivation in European forestry are therefore a combination of abiotic conditions and biotic damage factors. This review article focuses in particular on the new threats posed by pathogenic organisms causing emerging diseases. These include newly identified bacteria responsible for the so-called Acute Oak Decline (AOD), oomycetes (especially those specialised in damaging fine roots, such as Phytophthora quercina T.Jung) and semi-parasites of the genus Loranthus. At the same time, the pressure from commonly observed insects and fungi described in connection with the complex syndrome of oak decline, which is divided into predisposing, inciting, and contributing factors (according to Manion’s disease spiral), has not abated. Therefore, international, interdisciplinary research (such as that proposed in Oakland) is needed, using modern technologies (RS remote sensing) based on the comparison of satellite images (from different years), not only to inventory the most valuable oak stands in Europe (microrefugia) but also to identify trends in changes in their condition and biodiversity. As RS has its limitations (e.g., resolution), aerial monitoring should be complemented by quantitative and qualitative inventory from the ground, e.g., monitoring of the presence of soil microorganisms using effective molecular biological methods (e.g., Next-Generation Sequencing NGS).

South-central Laurentide Ice Sheet dynamics and the formation of proglacial Lake Vita during MIS 3

AbstractAn understanding of the growth and demise of ice sheets over North America is essential to inform future climate models. One poorly studied subject is the glacial dynamics during interstadial Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 (57–29 ka). To better constrain the southern margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during this time period, we re-examined a stratigraphic sequence in southeast Manitoba, Canada, and provide robust evidence for advance and retreat of ice. Around 46.6 ± 5.1 ka (1σ error), fluvial sands were deposited under similar precipitation and significantly cooler summer temperatures than present-day. Ice then advanced south over the area, before retreating once again and a return to boreal forest and grassland conditions. The area was then covered by proglacial Lake Vita, dammed by ice to the north. Geochronology constraints indicate Lake Vita existed from ca. 44.3 ± 3.6 to 30.4 ± 2.3 ka (1σ error), although gaps in the optical and finite radiocarbon ages suggest either a lack of data or plausible temporary ice-margin advances during this time period. Ice covering most of Manitoba during MIS 3 is in line with global δ18O records, and glacially influenced sediment deposition in the Mississippi River basin.

Accuracy Assessment of Advanced Laser Scanner Technologies for Forest Survey Based on Three-Dimensional Point Cloud Data

Forests play a crucial role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, offering ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, and water resource management. As global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions intensify, the demand for accurate spatial information to monitor forest conditions and assess carbon absorption capacity has grown. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) has emerged as a transformative tool, providing high-resolution 3D spatial data for detailed analysis of forest attributes, including tree height, canopy structure, and biomass distribution. Unlike traditional manpower-intensive forest surveys, which are time-consuming and often limited in accuracy, LiDAR offers a more efficient and reliable solution. This study evaluates the accuracy and applicability of advanced LiDAR technologies—drone-mounted, terrestrial, and mobile scanners—for generating 3D forest spatial data. The results show that the terrestrial LiDAR achieved the highest precision for diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height measurements, with RMSE values of 0.66 cm and 0.91 m, respectively. Drone-mounted LiDAR demonstrated excellent efficiency for large-scale surveys, while mobile LiDAR offered portability and speed but required further improvement in accuracy (e.g., RMSE: DBH 0.76 cm, tree height 1.83 m). By comparing these technologies, this study identifies their strengths, limitations, and optimal application scenarios, contributing to more accurate forest management practices and carbon absorption assessments.

Land-use change, no-net-loss policies, and effects on carbon dioxide removals

BackgroundCarbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere (CDR) is a critical component of strategies for restricting global warming to 1.5°C and is expected to come largely from the sequestration of carbon in vegetation. Because CDR rates have been declining in the United States, in part due to land use changes, policy proposals are focused on altering land uses, through afforestation, avoided deforestation, and no-net-loss strategies. Estimating policy effects requires a careful assessment of how land uses interact with forest conditions to determine future CDR.ResultsWe evaluate how alternative specifications of land use-forest condition interactions in the United States affect projections of CDR using a model that mirrors land sector net emission inventories generated by the US government (EPA). Without land use change, CDR declines from 0.826 GT/yr in 2017 to 0.596 GT/yr in 2062 (28%) due to forest aging and disturbances. For a land use scenario that extends recent rates of change, we compare CDR estimated based on net changes in land use (Net Change model) and estimates that separately account for the distinct CDR implications of forest losses and forest gains (Component Change model). The Net Change model, a common specification, underestimates the CDR losses of land use by about 56% when compared with the Component Change models. We also estimate per hectare CDR losses from deforestation and gains from afforestation and find that afforestation gains lag deforestation losses in every ecological province in the US.ConclusionsNet Change approaches substantially underestimate the impact of land use change on CDR and should be avoided. Component Change models highlight that avoided deforestation may provide up to twice the CDR benefits as increased afforestation—though preference for one policy over the other would require a cost assessment. The disparities in the CDR impacts of afforestation and deforestation indicate that no-net-loss policies could mitigate some CDR losses but would lead to overall declines in CDR for our 45-year time horizon. Over a much longer period afforestation could capture more of the losses from deforestation but at a timeframe inconsistent with most climate change policy efforts.

An Improved Grid-Based Carbon Accounting Model for Forest Disturbances from Remote Sensing and TPO Survey Data

Forest disturbance is one of the main drivers of forest carbon flux change. How to accurately estimate the carbon flux caused by forest disturbance is an important research problem. In a previous study, the authors proposed a Grid-based Carbon Accounting (GCA) model that used remote sensing data to estimate forest carbon fluxes in North Carolina from 1986 to 2010. However, the original model was unable to track legacy emissions from previously harvested wood products and was unable to consider forest growth conditions before and after forest disturbance. This paper made some improvements to the original GCA model to enable it to track fluxes between all major aboveground live carbon pools, including pre-disturbance growth and growth of undisturbed forests, which were not included in the initial model. Based on existing timber product output (TPO) survey data and annual TPO records inversed from remote sensing data, we also worked to clarify the distribution ratios of removed C between slash and different wood product pools. Specifically, the average slash ratio for North Carolina was calculated from the difference between the C removed and the C flowing into the wood product as calculated from TPO survey data. County- and year-specific ratios were then calculated using the annual TPO records obtained from remote sensing and TPO survey data, dividing the removed remaining C into pools P1, P10, and P100, which were then applied to each 30 m pixel based on the county and year to which the pixel belonged. After compensating for these missing legacy emissions and adjusting forest growth rates from Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data, we estimated a net carbon sink of 218.1 Tg of the flux associated with live aboveground biomass and harvested wood products from North Carolina woodlands over the 25-year study period (1986–2010). This estimate is close to the greenhouse gas emission and sink data provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for North Carolina and is comparable to estimates reported by several other studies.

RESTORING CUSTOMARY FOREST RIGHTS THROUGH AGRARIAN REFORM: CASE STUDY OF THE KAMPAR COMMUNITY, INDONESIA

Approximately three-quarters of Kampar Regency is designated as state forest, despite the historical presence of indigenous communities for generations. Accordingly, this study examines on analyzing the framework for restoring the customary forest rights of these through agrarian reform, emphasizing social forestry. Employing a socio-legal research method, the study combines textual analysis of legal frameworks and case studies of Kampar's indigenous communities. The research examines two key issues: (1) the presence of indigenous communities and the concept of customary forest utilization in Kampar Regency, and (2) the importance of restoring indigenous communities’ rights to forests through social forestry initiatives. The findings reveal that indigenous communities in Kampar Regency maintain a strong connection to their ancestral heritage, viewing customary forest as inalienable heritage. The restoration of indigenous communities’ rights to these forest territories is considered essential. Social forestry is identified as a critical component of agrarian reform in Indonesia, with existing regulatory frameworks explicitly acknowledging indigenous communities as beneficiaries. Several areas of customary forest in Kampar Regency have also been identified as having potential for designation through social forestry programs.

Integrating UAV LiDAR and multispectral data to assess forest status and map disturbance severity in a West African forest patch

Integrating UAV LiDAR and multispectral data to assess forest status and map disturbance severity in a West African forest patch

Ground-truthing of a data driven landform map in southwest Australia

Ground-truthing of a data driven landform map in southwest Australia

Characteristics of the process of tree mortality occurring in the Polish Sudetes Mts

Abstract The forests of the Sudetes Mts are among the ecosystems most threatened by climate change in Poland. Abiotic factors cause the threat, such as an increase in the average annual temperature and a clear change in the distribution of atmospheric precipitation intensity during the year. The aim of the study is to characterise the process of tree mortality, especially spruce, the main forest-forming species of the region, in the Sudetes. The analyses carried out covered 12 forest districts belonging to the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Wrocław. Calculations made with the stand growth model showed that the total volume of merchantable timber in the forest districts is about 58 million m3, of which 68% consists of spruce. Two indices characterising the process of tree dieback, that is, tree dieback index (the volume of deadwood of a specific tree species harvested in the period 2011–2022) and tree dieback intensity coefficient (the quotient of the volume of deadwood harvested after the occurrence of the main cause of tree dieback and the volume of deadwood harvested before the occurrence of this cause there) were applied. The threat process intensified in 2015, when drought during the vegetation season caused massive thinning of trees and breakdown of tree stands, especially spruce stands and, to a lesser extent, pine and larch stands, and the least of all, birch, alder and beech stands. Therefore, it was assumed in the study that it is the ratio of the volume of deadwood obtained in the periods 2015–2018 and 2019–2022 to the volume of deadwood obtained in the period 2011–2014. There is an urgent need to change the concept of forest management in Poland. In the field of silviculture, it should include in particular: a) planning the species composition of tree stands, adapted to the changing of their growth conditions; b) a critical approach to the methods of forest management, including harvesting system and c) a critical verification of the methods used to determine the action level of cutting management, especially harvesting systems, and the order of selection of tree stands for the implementation of these treatments.

Associations between forest harvest scheduling and artificial intelligence

Contemporary tactical forest harvest scheduling efforts address planning problems that generally have an economic or commodity production objective, accounting routines to accumulate outcomes or to assess the extent of forest conditions, and constraints (policy or resource) that limit the assignment of management actions to subdivisions of a forest (stands or strata). Operations research methods have proven useful for addressing these problems and providing guidance, in the form of a harvest schedule, to people managing forests. Heuristic search and simulation methods have also shown promise for addressing these types of problems. Artificial intelligence includes some of these forms of search processes. When concepts of learning, adaptation, and emulation of human thought describe certain search processes, they can be considered under the broad umbrella of artificial intelligence. In this work, many of the operations research, heuristic search, and simulation methods that have been demonstrated as useful for forest harvest scheduling efforts are assessed for their association with artificial intelligence. In some cases, it is argued that the forestry profession has been using artificial intelligence for quite some time to develop tactical forest harvest schedules.

Environmental Governance Challenges of Indigenous Forest Recognition: Climate Solution Ideal and Its Uneven Outcomes in Indonesia

Formal policies on Indigenous land and forest rights recognition are increasingly being promoted as a climate solution in global forums. While this suggests a clear discursive victory for environmental justice movements, there has been less attention on the aftermaths of recognition. This in part owes to the novelty of policies on Indigenous land and forest recognition, but also due to the tendency among proponents to view formal legal victories as a means and ends of advocacy. In this paper, we spotlight what happens after recognition in Kajang, the site of the first Indigenous community to formally regain authority over state forests in Indonesia. We apply a lens from political ecology and draw from critical research on land and property to identify the unevenness of an emerging climate policy solution. Through grounded village-level research engagements lasting over three years in the span of over a decade, we identify a range of ethnographic perspectives on land, resources, authority, and shifting identity formation. Results highlight three main findings. First, while the assumption of community-based initiatives presumes the restoration of rights, new forms of enclosure and marginalization occur vis-à-vis policies of Indigenous land rights recognition. Second, the assumption of forest and environmental stewardship is by no means automatic, as land and resource concerns have a geographic dimension that may result in protection for some forests at the expense of others. Finally, Kajang is unique for its history and political economy making it difficult to assume parallel outcomes elsewhere. While environmental justice movements should continue to advocate for Indigeneity and forest and land recognition, more attention should be given to their underlying strategies and the implications of doing so.