Writing Fluency Research Articles

Validity and Diagnostic Accuracy of Early Written Expression Screeners in Kindergarten

Many students struggle with the basic skill of writing, yet schools lack technically adequate screening measures to identify students at risk in this area. Measures that allow for valid screening decisions that identify students in need of interventions to improve performance are greatly needed. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity and diagnostic accuracy of early writing screeners. Two early writing screening measures, Picture Word and Word Dictation, were administered to a diverse sample of 95 kindergarten students, almost half of whom were classified as English language learners and almost 70% identified ethnically as Hispanic. It was hypothesized that the early writing screening measures would demonstrate moderate to strong relationships with a standardized norm-referenced measure of written expression and adequate diagnostic accuracy for identifying kindergarten students at risk. Findings indicate that concurrent validity coefficients for both Picture Word and Word Dictation tasks ranged from .32 to .70 with the Written Expression cluster of the Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Achievement–IV and .26 to .61 with the Writing Samples and Sentence Writing Fluency subtests. Diagnostic accuracy results suggest these measures are a promising option for screening early writing skills. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.

Effect of Text Chat on EFL Writing Fluency, Accuracy, and Complexity by Interlocutors

This study reports the effects of text chat on EFL students’ writing fluency, accuracy, and complexity, investigating whether its effects differ according to the interlocutor. The experimental design employed three text chat groups: one between two nonnative speakers (NNS-NNS); another between a nonnative speaker and a native speaker (NNS-NS); and the other between a nonnative speaker and a nativelike chatbot (NNS-NC). 78 college students of English as a foreign language between 19 to 22 years old were sampled and assigned into the three groups, each consisting of 30, 20, and 28, respectively. Over a 16-week period, they engaged in ten 10-minute-long chat sessions. All groups were tested before and after the treatment. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare preand post-test scores as far as fluency, accuracy, and complexity concerned. To find out the differences between mean scores of the groups, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run. Results indicated that all three groups showed significant improvement in accuracy while only NNS-NS and NNS-NC groups did in fluency. No effects for complexity were evident. In terms of group differences, no statistical significance was detected. Participants’ perceptions of English learning and text chat positively changed overall. This study has pedagogical implications for EFL teachers, students, and researchers.

The Relationship Between Fluency and Accuracy in Writing

The Relationship Between Fluency and Accuracy in Writing

The Effect of Mentor Text Model on Improving EFL Learners Writing Fluency and Accuracy

This study was an attempt to investigate whether manipulating the mentor text has any substantial effects on writing skill in terms of fluency and accuracy of texts produced by EFL learners to enable them to reach a high level of writing quality. To fulfill the purpose of this study, 25 male and female students studying at Tabriz-Iran, were selected based on their performance on a Nelson Proficiency. A writing test was administered after the proficiency test as pre-test. Then, the group was taught writing with the mentor text. At the end of the instruction, writing post-test was administered to the participants of all groups after an interval of five weeks. Although the results of a paired sample t-test showed that mentor-text model had no significant effect on EFL learners’ writing fluency, it had a significant effect on their writing accuracy. The results of the study may be useful for EFL teacher in teaching writing skill, moreover, it may help learners to promote their writing ability by proper use of mentor texts in English learning classroom.

Examining Alphabet Writing Fluency in Kindergarten

Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) are necessary for educators to quickly assess student skill levels and monitor progress. This study examined the use of the alphabet writing fluency task, a CBM of writing, to assess handwriting fluency—that is, how well children access, retrieve, and write letter forms automatically. In the current study, the alphabet writing fluency task was administered at both the beginning and end of the kindergarten school year. Scores were calculated for two time increments, 15 and 60 s, and compared with an alphabet writing, untimed task. All three scores were compared with criterion measures of writing, including both standardized writing assessments and compositional CBMs of writing. Results indicate that measuring alphabet writing fluency using either timed tasks (15- or 60-s) at the beginning or the end of kindergarten may not be a useful or valid endeavor. In contrast, the alphabet writing, untimed task measure showed stronger correlations to criterion writing measures in comparison with the 15- and 60-s alphabet writing fluency tasks and also showed greater concurrent and predictive validity. Limitations and further areas of study are discussed.

Using Performance Feedback and Goal Setting to Improve Elementary Students' Writing Fluency: A Randomized Controlled Trial

.Although performance feedback interventions successfully lead to improvements in students' performance, research suggests that the combination of feedback and goal setting leads to greater performance than either component alone and that graphing performance in relation to a goal can lead to improvements in academic performance. The goal of the study was to examine the writing fluency growth of 115 third-grade students participating in a performance feedback intervention combined with a salient goal-setting component (n = 38) in comparison to a performance feedback (n = 39) or control (n = 38) condition, using a randomized controlled trial. As hypothesized, students in the two performance feedback conditions significantly improved their writing fluency over the course of the study, averaging a weekly gain of approximately 1.88 to 2.11 correct writing sequences, in contrast to students participating in the control condition, who averaged a weekly gain of less than one correct writing sequence. However, contrary to one of the major hypotheses, providing students with an additional goal-setting component did not improve students' writing fluency more than performance feedback alone. Considerations regarding the use of performance feedback interventions, as well as limitations of the study, are discussed.

The effect of topic selection on writing fluency among Japanese high school students

Written fluency and fluency building activities have been shown to promote linguistic choice and student voice development, increased ability to express ideas using complex grammatical structures and greater intrinsic motivation in English language learners. Since the 1970’s, process-oriented writing has been emphasized, yielding an amplified focus on meaning of student content over linguistic form precision. Current research of writing fluency must delve deeper into questions of student ownership of topic and the outcomes for low-risk activities that support fluency practice and encourage confidence building in students. The purpose of this replication study is to further explore previous findings on the effects of topic selection on writing fluency for high school English as foreign language learners. Building off of the work of Bonzo (2008), this study focused on a timed, non-graded writing activity administered to groups of Japanese engineering students in three departments: mechanical, electrical, and global engineering. The six subsequent samples for each participating student were analyzed using online text-analysis for total and unique word counts, providing data used to perform a t-test. Responses to bi-lingual student questionnaires, with prompts on self-perceived written English ability, self-efficacy and strategies for success while writing, provided additional insight into the facets of fluency. The results of these writing sessions offer both confirmation of and contrast to Bonzo’s original work, demonstrate increased student meaning making, and support the use of free writing activities in English language classrooms as a means by which student written fluency may be improved.

Fluency in Writing: A Multidimensional Perspective on Writing Fluency Applied to L1 and L2

Abstract Some texts are easy to write, others are a real struggle. This article presents a brief review of how fluency has generally been measured in writing research. In addition to these ‘traditional’ measures, we define a wide range of complementary measures that might be diagnostic of fluency, by taking also more process-related characteristics into account. These complementary measures are derived from keystroke logging data, which were collected from an experiment among 68 students who wrote two descriptive texts, one in their mother tongue and the other in their second language. By using correlation and principal component analyses, we have reduced the set of variables and created a new multidimensional model to better address the complexity of fluency in writing. This model consists of four dimensions: (a) production, (b) process variation, (c) revision, and (d) pause behavior. These four components together create a multidimensional perspective on writing, which enables us to differentiate between fluent and less fluent writers.

The Effects of Pre-task Planning on the Writing Fluency of Iranian EFL Learners

According to Nunan (2004), Task-Based Language Teaching is an approach to the use of tasks as fundamental units of planning and language instruction in language teaching. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of pre-task planning on the fluency of the argumentative essays written by Iranian male and female EFL learners with an intermediate proficiency level. For this purpose, an IELTS Writing Task was administered to a population of 100 EFL learners studying at an English institute in Isfahan. Based on their scores, a sample of 50 intermediate level students were selected and randomly divided into two homogenous groups, 25 each. These samples served as control and experimental groups respectively. The role of gender differences was also investigated in this study. Accordingly, the learners in control group were taught by a structure-based traditional approach while the learners in experimental group were taught by a task-based approach. In order to compare the collected data of the two groups, several t tests were utilized. The obtained results of the written essays by the male students revealed that pre-task planning improved fluency. On the other hand, the comparison of the essays written by the females in both group revealed that they produced more fluent texts.

Investigating the Impact of Topic Selection Control on Writing Fluency

本研究は，L2ドイツ語ライティングの流暢さを調査したJoshua Bonzo（2008）の部分的な追従研究である。Bonzoと本研究は，学習者がより多く書くのはトピックを指導者が与えた場合であるか，学習者自身が選んだ場合であるかを調査したという点で共通している。調査では日本人大学生75名を4つのクラスに分け，10分間の自由英作文への取り組みを全6回実施した。さらに，学習者は，トピック選択の好みに関する事後調査に回答した。全体的な結果は，学習者自身がトピックを選択した場合により多く書く傾向にあるというBonzoの結果を支持するものであった。

The UCSF screening exam effectively screens cognitive and behavioral impairment in patients with ALS

The University of California San Francisco (UCSF) Screening Battery provides clinicians with a uniquely tailored tool to measure ALS patients’ cognitive and behavioral changes, adjusting for dysarthria and hand weakness. The battery consists of the ALS-CBS (1), Written Fluency Test (2), and a new revision of the Frontal Behavior Inventory (FBI-ALS) (3). The validity of each component was tested by comparing results with a gold standard neuropsychological exam (GNE). Consensus criteria-based GNE diagnoses (4) were assigned (n = 24) and concurrent validity was tested for each screening exam component. Results showed that each of the four cognitive and behavioral screening test components were significantly associated with diagnoses confirmed by GNE. GNE diagnoses were significantly associated with FBI-ALS negative score, written S-words score, and ALS-CBS cognitive score. The total FBI-ALS score and C-words tests were less predictive of GNE-diagnosed impairment. In conclusion, the UCSF Cognitive Screening Battery demonstrates good external validity compared with GNE in this modest sample, encouraging its use in larger investigations. These data suggest that this battery may provide an effective screen to identify ALS patients who will then benefit from a full examination to confirm their diagnosis.

The Impact of Topic Selection on Writing Fluency: Making a Case for Freedom

This study sought to test the hypothesis that topic-selection control influences fluency in writing. A total of 29 second-year university students (9 men, 20 women) in two separate classrooms engaged in a free writing activity using different topics (both teacher-selected and self-selected) in order to determine which approach was more likely to increase writing fluency. Participants’ written output was then textually analyzed for fluency using a type/token formula. A total of 116 samples written by participants over four weeks were examined to measure their writing fluency by counting the total number of unique words produced in a free writing task. Participants’ writing samples were then analyzed by conducting a correlated-samples t-test. The results showed the effect of topic-selection had a statistically significant influence on increasing students’ writing fluency. The results also support the claim that fluency development deserves a prominent role in second and foreign language classrooms and curriculums. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v18i1-2.10328 Journal of NELTA, Vol 18 No. 1-2, December 2013; 31-40

Individual and Collaborative Planning Conditions: Effects on Fluency, Complexity and Accuracy in L2 Argumentative Writing

Research on pre-task planning has revealed that planned conditions have produced more fluent and complex language than unplanned conditions. To date, most of these studies have investigated the effects of individual planning on language production while collaborative planning has received scant attention. To determine the effects of pre-task planning on second language written production, the present study examined Iranian EFL learners’ argumentative writings under the conditions of individual and collaborative pre-task planning. The participants’ written productions were analyzed using three measures of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. The performance of individual planners and collaborative planners were compared using a series of one-way ANOVAs. Results indicated that collaborative planning promoted more accurate textual output while individual planning resulted in greater fluency. The results obtained from one-way ANOVAs also revealed that neither type of planned conditions benefited complexity. Possible explanations are provided and the implications of the findings for the applicability of collaborative planning are discussed.

The Impact of Peer Scaffolding through Process Approach on EFL Learners’ Academic Writing Fluency

This paper aimed to examine the impact of peer scaffolding through process approach on writing fluency of EFL learners. To this end, a Nelson Proficiency Test was administered to 49 EFL learners studying at University of Guilan, based on which 40 homogenous learners at an intermediate level comprised the research sample. Afterwards, the participants were randomly divided into a control group of 20 students, and an experimental group comprising 10 dyads. The control group wrote argumentative essays based on product approach to writing and those in the experimental group practiced essay writing through process approach while a competent writer provided scaffolding to a less competent one. The essays produced in pre- and post-test were analyzed in terms of writing fluency. Using SPSS 16, the results of One-way ANOVA at the alpha level of .05 revealed that in spite of having improvement in some aspects of their writing fluency such as words per minute, average words and T-units, learners in the experimental group did not outperform those in the control group. However, one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA illustrated that both competent and less competent writers in the experimental group have improved in their writing fluency. The study may have implications for improving EFL learners’ fluency in writing.

A Comparison of Conjunction Use and Writing Fluencyin Writing by Children Aged Six and Eight

A Comparison of Conjunction Use and Writing Fluencyin Writing by Children Aged Six and Eight

The Impact of Collaborative Writing on the Writing Fluency of Iranian EFL Learners

Writing is no longer an individual activity but an interactive process through which social abilities of the learners are reinforced. To promote interaction in the writing class, collaboration has been suggested to be advantageous. The present study aimed to examine the impact of practicing in pairs on the writing fluency of Iranian EFL learners. To this end, an OPT test was administered to female EFL learners according to which 90 homogenous learners at an intermediate level comprised the research sample. Afterwards, the participants were randomly divided into two groups including a control group of 30 students, each producing a written text individually and an experimental group of 60 learners working in pairs. Since each pair produced a single text, the numbers of texts rather than the number of participants was considered. In order to compare the data collected from two groups, a t- test was used. The results obtained from the essays written in the first session of the writing phase revealed that pairs produced less fluent texts than the individual writers. More specifically, the average number of words, T-units, and clauses in individual essays was less than that of pairs. The essays written in the last session revealed that there was a considerable improvement in the use of T-units and clauses produced by pairs; however, the fluency of the written texts was not noticeably significant in comparison with the fluency of essays produced by the individuals. The findings also revealed that practicing in pairs did improve the overall quality of the learners' writing productions even though the fluency of written texts did not change significantly.

Effect of a Coteaching Handwriting Program for First Graders: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

We examined the effects of a cotaught handwriting and writing program on first-grade students grouped by low, average, and high baseline legibility. The program's aim was to increase legibility, handwriting speed, writing fluency, and written expression in students with diverse learning needs. Thirty-six first-grade students in two classrooms participated in a 12-wk handwriting and writing program cotaught by teachers and an occupational therapist. Students were assessed at pretest, posttest, and 6-mo follow-up using the Evaluation Tool of Children's Handwriting-Manuscript (ETCH-M) and the Woodcock-Johnson Writing Fluency and Writing Samples tests. Students made large gains in ETCH-M legibility (η² = .74), speed (η²s = .52-.65), Writing Fluency (η² = .58), and Writing Samples (η² = .59). Students with initially low legibility improved most in legibility; progress on the other tests was similar across low-, average-, and high-performing groups. This program appeared to benefit first-grade students with diverse learning needs and to increase handwriting legibility and speed and writing fluency.

Enhancing Students’ Fluency in Writing: Learning to Use Transition Words

This study uses experimental and control group data to investigate whether learning to use transition words results in enhancing students’ fluency in writing. Common sentence connectors, such as moreover, however, thus, etc were chosen in order that students learn the use of transition words in text and improve their writing fluency. 36 first-year university students were placed in an intermediate class: 18 control group students and 18 experimental group students. Over a 12-week period, both groups received equal amounts of writing assignments. During the first half of the period, both groups were given content and form feedback, but the experimental group was given additional marginal comments on the use of sentence connectors. After six weeks, both groups were given identical types of feedback and comments. Fluency was measured by the number of words written and successful connections (SCs). These results were analyzed to determine if there was a significant difference in fluency between the two groups. Findings suggest that writing teachers should teach students the effectiveness of using transition words in EFL writing classes, and this may in part help to improve students’ fluency.

Executive functioning and the impact of a hearing loss: Performance-based measures and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)

The impact of deafness on a child's rated executive functioning behaviors and performance capabilities on neurological, cognitive, and achievement domains were examined in a sample of 22 deaf students (ages 5 to 18). The parent and teacher ratings on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) showed significant positive correlations (p < .01) on six of the eight clinical scales. There were significant correlations between the BRIEF reports and the students' scores on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the (Children's) Color Trails Test, and the Woodcock-Johnson: Writing Fluency subtest. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Total Errors scale and the Writing Fluency subtest accounted for 70% variance of the parent BRIEF Global Executive Composite and 65% of the variance for the teacher report on this same composite scale. Students with genetic deafness were rated with significantly less challenges with executive functioning (p < .05) on BRIEF scales and performed significantly better on select student measures than students with other causes of deafness.

Using Speech Recognition Software to Increase Writing Fluency for Individuals with Physical Disabilities

Students with physical disabilities often have difficulty with writing fluency, despite the use of various strategies, adaptations, and assistive technology (AT). One possible intervention is the use of speech recognition software, although there is little research on its impact on students with physical disabilities. This study used an alternating treatments design to compare the use of speech recognition software to word processing on first draft writing with students with physical disabilities. Areas examined were fluency, accuracy, type of word errors, recall of intended meaning, and length. The results of this study indicated that fluency and length were greater for all participants with speech recognition compared to word processing, but accuracy was lower using speech recognition.