L2 Fluency Research Articles

Differences in the effects of Task Repetition Techniques on the fluency development of ESL learners

In an attempt to compare the effects of interleaved and blocked practice on L2 fluency development, 44 adolescent Indian English as L2 learners were given fluency training in English for three months. The participants in the blocked group engaged in task repetition practice of speaking English sentences in a predictable sequence of task repetition, i.e., aaaa, bbbb, cccc, and dddd, in the first 16 sessions. The sequence of the task repetition practice in the interleaved group was arranged using the technique of spacing and mixing, i.e., abcd, abbd, aacc, and bdcd, in the first 16 sessions. The mean values of the English fluency scores of the interleaved and blocked group in the two intermediate fluency tests in the middle of the training and one achievement test at the end showed no statistically significant difference in fluency development as the p-value of the comparison in a repeated measures ANOVA test was .29 representing low F value of 1.16 and effect size of .05. The participants in the blocked group, however, demonstrated a minor growth in fluency development from slow and hesitant speech behavior to occasional self-correction or repetition in a long speech in the later stages of the fluency training in English. The systematic manipulation of the sequence of the tasks to be practiced incorporating high similarity or stimuli retrieval in blocked practice might be more effective in fluency development in L2 than interleaving. As interleaving causes anxiety among beginners, it might not be an appropriate method of task repetition in the initial stage of fluency practice in L2.

The Poster Carousel in theESLClassroom: What Happens to Learners'L2Fluency During Same and Parallel‐Task Repetition?

AbstractThis paper reports on the impact of an English as a Second Language (ESL) speaking activity—the poster carousel—on English learners' second language (L2) fluency. Two versions of the poster carousel were developed to observe the effect of talking about (a) the same poster three times (same‐task repetition) or (b) three different posters (parallel‐task repetition). 46 ESL learners took part, and their performances were audio‐recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using PRAAT to detail their L2 utterance fluency. The findings suggest that learners were more fluent during repeated performances in thesame‐task repetitionposter carousel group. No changes in fluency were observed for theparallel‐task repetitionposter carousel group. A detailed case study explores these observed fluency increases in the same‐task repetition group and generates further hypotheses for empirical exploration. Some observations are made which relate to the selection of fluency measures in L2 fluency research.

Pre- and in-service teachers’ beliefs about second language pronunciation teaching, their experience, and speech assessments

This study investigated whether and to what degree individual differences in teachers' experience and beliefs are associated with their judgements of second language (L2) speech. Participants included 50 in-service and 50 pre-service teachers who rated 40 audio-recorded speaking performances by Japanese secondary school students, evaluating these students' L2 English comprehensibility, fluency, and accentedness. The teachers also completed online questionnaires targeting their beliefs about L2 pronunciation instruction and recorded their professional and personal experiences related to language teaching and learning. Compared to pre-service teachers, in-service teachers appeared to hold stronger beliefs about L2 pronunciation instruction. Notably, in-service teachers' comprehensibility and fluency ratings were predicted only by their beliefs (importance of pronunciation, who can teach pronunciation), whereas pre-service teachers' accentedness ratings were predicted by a combination of variables, including their beliefs (how to teach pronunciation) and experience (living abroad). These findings demonstrate possible links between teachers’ assessment practices and their professional experiences and beliefs relevant to L2 pronunciation instruction.

How does learners’ L2 utterance fluency relate to their L1? A meta‐analysis

AbstractUnraveling how learners’ L2 fluency performance relates to their L1 is crucial for promoting L2 speaking assessment. Despite the consensus that learners’ L1 and L2 are correlated in several measures of utterance fluency, there have been variations in the correlation strength resulting from methodological differences. The current meta‐analysis aims to present an overall picture of the L1–L2 fluency relationship and investigate the moderating effect of methodological factors. We identified 16 studies with 137 effect sizes and 714 participants. Through a multi‐level meta‐analysis, we calculated the aggregate effect sizes of the relationship between L1 and L2 fluency and examined the potential moderating effect of five learner and task variables. The overall correlation was strongest in L1 and L2 breakdown fluency, followed by speed and composite fluency, and weakest in repair fluency. Based on the results of the moderator analyses, we assume that the relationship between L1 and L2 composite fluency may be affected by L2 learning context, task type, and task consistency. The findings have implications for future research design and L2 fluency assessment.

What Does Linguistic Distance Predict When It Comes to L2 Writing of Adult Immigrant Learners of Spanish?

This study examined whether the linguistic distance between the first (L1) and second (L2) language is a significant determinant of L2 writing skills of 292 adult immigrants from 39 different source countries, who were beginner learners of Spanish L2. Gender, age, length of residence in Spain, education level as a proxy for literacy skills in L1, enrolment in Spanish language courses, and overall communicative competence in Spanish were also considered. Using both standard procedures for assessing L2 writing and performance-based psycholinguistic measures of accuracy and text-production fluency, the findings highlight the important role of linguistic proximity in achieving greater accuracy, text-production fluency, and overall L2 writing scores. Other significant predictors were age, enrolment in Spanish courses, and education level for accuracy; and length of residence in Spain and education level for text-production fluency. Although length of residence in Spain was negatively associated with text-production fluency in L2 writing, mediation analyses revealed that the effect of age on text-production fluency was mediated by length of residence in Spain and that L2 proficiency level mediated the link between linguistic distance and text-production fluency. Furthermore, most of the errors that these immigrants made were morphosyntactic and spelling errors, while vocabulary errors were rare.

일본어 및 중국어권 한국어 학습자 유창성 초분절 요소 습득 비교 연구

The study aims at examining the role of L1 background language and L2 proficiency level in acquiring the L2 fluency. For the purpose, we investigate acoustical changes of 5 suprasegmental cues by using parameters of the proficiency levels of Japanese and Chinese learners of Korean. Before the experiments, we predict that L2 learners with advanced levels of Korean and L1 background language approximated to the suprasegmental structure of Korean are more likely to acquire L2 Korean fluency. One hundred fifty two subjects with six groups ((Japanese, Mandarin Chinese) * (elementary, intermediate, advanced)) take part in the experiment with native Korean speakers as a control group. The results show that both parameters of the L1 background language and L2 proficiency levels have influence equally on the acquisition of the L2 Korean suprasegmentals. However, the extent is different. For example, the L1 effect decreased over the L2 proficiency levels; the advanced levels of both L1 groups acquired L2 Korean prosody in a similar extent. Also some acoustical cues trigger an uneven influence on Korean natives’ ratings for L2 Korean suprasegmentals; speech rate seems to be the most important cue, whereas the spectrum cues do not.

The impact of input, input repetition, and task repetition on L2 lexical use and fluency in speaking

The present study investigates the impact of meaningful input on L2 learners’ vocabulary use and their fluency in oral performance (immediate and repeat tasks), as well as whether the effects are mediated by learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory. Ninety university students learning English as a foreign language were randomly assigned to one of three groups: input (N = 29), input repetition (N = 32), and no-input (i.e., baseline group) (N = 29). The input group watched L2 videos prior to performing an immediate oral task, whereas the input repetition group watched the same videos not only before but also after the immediate oral task. The no-input group only performed the oral tasks without watching the videos. The three groups repeated the same oral task after two days. Results did not show a significant effect of task repetition, input, and input repetition on learners’ lexical use and fluency. However, the fluency and lexical complexity in learners’ L2 speech can be predicted by their receptive vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to some extent.

Writing fluency predicted by reading, linguistic and cognitive skills in L1 and L2 in the writing of bilingual biscriptal Persian-Swedish children

Abstract 
 Literacy acquisition in children’s L1 and L2 contributes to academic success, and embraces and supports children’s backgrounds and identity formation. However, limited education can prevent bilingual children from developing their writing fluency on the same level in L1 and L2. An analysis of writing fluency can show aspects that require more or less effort in children’s L1 and L2 writing. Thus, it is important to examine writing fluency and the related reading, linguistic and cognitive skills across children’s languages. Our knowledge is limited regarding the skills that could influence children’s writing fluency. Previous studies have mainly focused on Latin scripts and/or one alphabetic and one non-alphabetic script. Furthermore, English has been the writers’ L1 or L2. This paper investigated reading, linguistic and cognitive skills related to the writing fluency of bilingual biscriptal children in two different alphabetic scripts: Persian (L1) and Swedish (L2) across two different genres: narrative and descriptive. 23 children in years 4–9 (aged 10–15) produced four texts each using the Eye and Pen tool. Standardised tests across both languages were used to explore the participants’ reading, linguistic and cognitive skills. Analyses showed that they were more fluent writers across both genres in L2. Word reading appears to contribute to writing fluency across both languages, whereas vocabulary knowledge only related to writing fluency in L1. No significant relationship was found between working memory and writing fluency in either L1 or L2. 
 
 Keywords: Handwriting, Eye and Pen, word comprehension, working memory, vocabulary, word reading

Predicting L2-Spanish fluency from L1-English fluency and L2 proficiency: A conceptual replication

AbstractThis study conceptually replicated Huensch and Tracy-Ventura’s (2017) analysis of the relationship between L1 and L2 utterance fluency with adult L1-English learners of Spanish. Data from 88 participants were analyzed to explore the proportion of the variance in L2 fluency measures that can be attributed to the corresponding L1 measures, and the relative weights of L1 fluency and L2 proficiency as predictors of L2 fluency. This study applied the same fluency and proficiency constructs and operationalizations as the original study, but differed in task type and learners’ L2 proficiency. Results were most similar for speed and repair frequency, and for silent pause duration. Findings concerning silent and filled pause frequency differed. Combined, the studies show that some L1-L2 fluency relationships are relatively stable across proficiency levels, task type, and learning context.

Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in L2 writing across proficiency levels: A matter of L1 background?

While there have been studies that explored complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as an index of language proficiency, studies that comprehensively examined the inter-variations in the CAF of different L1 backgrounds across proficiency levels remain very limited. Thus, we investigated how CAF measures in L2 writing differentiate proficiency levels in six Asian L1 backgrounds. We also examined how these measures vary from one L1 background to another. A total of 3606 argumentative essays from the International Corpus Network of Asian Learners of English (ICNALE) were analyzed for 18 CAF measures. Overall results confirmed that differences exist among these measures as an index of proficiency when different L1 backgrounds are compared. The findings also provided some evidence that L2 writers who belong to typologically similar languages exhibit striking similarities in several CAF measures compared to typologically dissimilar languages. Nonetheless, the data showed that MLC, CN/T, WCR, and W/Tx are the most consistent among CAF measures in differentiating proficiency levels in each of the different L1 backgrounds. Implications for L2 writing assessment and future studies are discussed. • Complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) were examined jointly as indices of proficiency. • A large sample ( N = 3606) of essays across seven L1 backgrounds were analyzed. • The findings suggest that CAF does not follow a rigid pattern of development. • CAF as an index of proficiency varies from one L1 background to another.

The relationship of proficiency to speed fluency, pausing, and eye-gaze behaviours in L2 writing

In this study we investigated the extent to which writing proficiency predicts L2 writers’ speed fluency, pausing, and eye-gaze behaviours and the cognitive processes that underlie pausing. Additionally, we explored whether these relationships were influenced by stage of writing (beginning, middle stages, end). The participants were 60 Chinese second language users of English, with proficiency levels ranging from CEFR B1 to C1 levels. They all completed two independent TOEFL iBT writing tasks over two sessions, with the tasks being counterbalanced across participants. While composing, we recorded participants’ keystrokes and eye-gaze behaviours. Participants also took part in a stimulated recall session based on the last writing task they had completed. A series of mixed-effects regression models found that proficiency was the strongest predictor of speed fluency. The stimulated recall analysis revealed considerably less variation in cognitive activities among lower- than higher-proficiency writers across writing stages.

WRITTEN AND ORAL CODESWITCHING PREVALENCE: FUNCTIONS AND DIDACTIC IMPLICATIONS IN ESL CONTEXT

Despite longitudinal studies conducted along written and oral codeswitching linguistic prevalence considering ESL context, none of the ensuing studies has attempted to propose a theory delineating the preceding occurrence committed by L2 interlocutors which add to the novelty aspect of this paper. The quantitative analysis redounds to the formation of philosophical data on the constructive aspects associated to codeswitching occurrence in ESL classroom despite its adverse impressions in the context of pedagogy. This paper predominantly explores codeswitching from L1 to L2 in a multifaceted milieu as it has hidden purposes and functions along the channels of communication. For instance, codeswitching for equivalence (Mam the villain in the story is “masama”, because uhmmm…. She done bad thing to the main character). After careful scrutiny, the study emphasizes that the highlighted linguistic prevalence should uncover its positive aspects for communicative competence sake. The paramount goal must always be the understanding of the text and glitches along the channels of communication must be deemed secondary. This practice has functions and purposes in the context of the interlocutors of the language itself. They do such for clarity, emphasis, emotion expression, and equivalence for the most part. The role of ESL teachers counts a lot to bring the students to a high level of communicative competence. L1 shall serve as a bridge to reach L2 fluency.

Examining the relations between semantic memory structure and creativity in second language

Creativity is related to a higher flexible semantic memory structure, which could explain greater fluency of ideas. Extensive research has identified a positive connection between creativity and bi-/multilingualism mainly in contexts where two languages or more concur in daily communicative interactions. Yet, creativity has received scant attention in regard to L2 (second or foreign language) acquisition that mainly takes place in classroom situations. The scarce research points to a positive relationship between creativity and L2 fluency – understood as the number of words produced. We apply computational network science analysis and Forward Flow methods to examine lexical organization patterns of a low creativity (LC) and high creativity (HC) group of 12th grade Spanish English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The participants completed two fluency tasks, where they generated animal names in their L2, and also L1 – used here as a control measure. EFL proficiency was controlled. Our analyses revealed that the HC individuals were more fluent in L1 and L2, generated more remote responses, and exhibited a more flexible and efficiently structured semantic memory in both languages, with a greater effect of creativity in L2. Contrary to previous research, the L2 semantic memory network exhibited a less random organization. Differences in the L2 learning conditions are adduced as likely causes of this result.

Multilingual speakers’ L1, L2, and L3 fluency across languages: A study of Finnish, Swedish, and English

Multilingual speakers’ L1, L2, and L3 fluency across languages: A study of Finnish, Swedish, and English

Abschnittsweise Analyse sprachlicher Flüssigkeit in der Lernersprache: Das Ganze ist weniger informativ als seine Teile

AbstractIn this corpus-based study we explore three measurements of L2 fluency – articulation rate, filler particles, and pauses –, both within and between two registers of spontaneous dialogues spoken by Polish learners of German. The measurements are assessed bothin toto(as calculated over the whole dialogue) andin parte(as calculated for specific sections). The sections are identified on a quantitative tier that divides the dialogue into four parts, and qualitatively on two linguistically-informed tiers, comprising sections based on dialogue move and task. We challenge the assessment of fluency as an average measurement over the entire dialogue, showing that a sectionwise analysis offers a better understanding of similarities and differences both within and between the two registers.

Global and localized network characteristics of the resting brain predict and adapt to foreign language learning in older adults

Resting brain (rs) activity has been shown to be a reliable predictor of the level of foreign language (L2) proficiency younger adults can achieve in a given time-period. Since rs properties change over the lifespan, we investigated whether L2 attainment in older adults (aged 64–74 years) is also predicted by individual differences in rs activity, and to what extent rs activity itself changes as a function of L2 proficiency. To assess how neuronal assemblies communicate at specific frequencies to facilitate L2 development, we examined localized and global measures (Minimum Spanning Trees) of connectivity. Results showed that central organization within the beta band (~ 13–29.5 Hz) predicted measures of L2 complexity, fluency and accuracy, with the latter additionally predicted by a left-lateralized centro-parietal beta network. In contrast, reduced connectivity in a right-lateralized alpha (~ 7.5–12.5 Hz) network predicted development of L2 complexity. As accuracy improved, so did central organization in beta, whereas fluency improvements were reflected in localized changes within an interhemispheric beta network. Our findings highlight the importance of global and localized network efficiency and the role of beta oscillations for L2 learning and suggest plasticity even in the ageing brain. We interpret the findings against the background of networks identified in socio-cognitive processes.

The influence of language shift on Sanapaná vowels: An exemplar-based perspective

AbstractThis paper presents the first sociophonetic study of Sanapaná (Enlhet-Enenlhet), spoken by around one thousand people in Paraguay. It examines the effects of L2 (Spanish/Guaraní) fluency and loss of L1 exposure on vowel quality and within-category variability of /e, o/ productions in the Sanapaná /e, a, o/ system. Data from eleven native Sanapaná speakers suggest that age and multilingualism may have little explanatory power by themselves. Speakers living in a majority-L2 environment show greater within-category variability and increased convergence of /e, o/ toward the L2 high vowels /i, u/ than daily users of Sanapaná. This suggests that decreased L1 exposure is the main factor driving language shift-related change in Sanapaná. I explain these findings in an exemplar-theoretic framework. Although the number of speakers sampled is limited, these data provide a valuable addition to our knowledge of sociolinguistic variation in small, underrepresented communities.

To what extent are foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment related to L2 fluency? An investigation of task-specific emotions and breakdown and speed fluency in an oral task

The relationship between foreign language anxiety (FLA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) experienced during a creative collaborative oral English-as-a-foreign-language task, and the relationships between FLE/FLA and task speech fluency were investigated. The task was performed by mid-intermediate/high-intermediate English learners ( N = 43) in groups and culminated in 2-minute monologues by every participant, the breakdown (the ratio and length of mid- and end-AS unit pauses) and speed (mean length of run, articulation rate, and phonation time ratio) utterance fluency of which was measured. The relationship between FLA and FLE fluctuated between task parts, form negligible to medium-strong negative. There were numerous negative links between FLA and fluency, and less numerous positive links between FLE and fluency of various strength. These lend support to earlier claims that FLA is associated with impaired second language (L2) outcomes and positive emotions may facilitate L2 learning/performance. The links between fluency and FLA and FLE experienced during collaborative L2 processing/practice preceding the monologue the fluency of which was examined were more frequent and stronger than links with the emotions during the monologue, pointing to the possible depletion and improvement of L2 processing caused respectively by FLA and FLE especially during this stage. The emotions were linked especially with fluency indices associated with speech formulation/encoding. In regression analyses, proficiency was the strongest predictor of fluency, followed by much weaker predictive power FLA and then FLE, which may be related to participants’ relatively high L2 advancement. The results imply that L2 teachers exploit the emotional impact of learning tasks and attend to the emotional atmosphere of L2 classes, especially their enjoyability.

Investigating the contribution of L1 fluency, L2 initial fluency, working memory and phonological memory to L2 fluency development

Within the same learning context, learners’ outcomes in terms of oral fluency vary greatly. This study tracked the relative contributions that first language (L1) and initial second language (L2) fluency skill and working memory (WM) made to L2 fluency development. We assessed the performance of French-speaking Grade 6 learners’ ( n = 47, mean age: 11) in a 10-month intensive English program in Quebec, Canada using a picture-cue monologic task based on The Suitcase Story and a semi-structured interview based on the Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI). Working memory was assessed using a backward digit span task and phonological memory (PM) via non-word repetition and serial non-word recognition tasks. Overall, results suggest that L1 fluency, WM and PM played only a minor role in learners’ L2 fluency outcomes, whereas learners’ pre-program levels of L2 fluency constituted an important predictor of L2 fluency development regardless of the speech task used to index fluency.

Does Medium – Teletandem vs Face-to-Face Make a Difference in Advanced L2 Spanish Learner’s Oral Fluency?

SLA researchers have advocated for the incorporation of Teletandem (a sub-strand of tele-collaboration) as an autonomous, collaborative, and virtual foreign language environment (see BENEDETTI, CONSOLO; VIEIRA-ABRAHÃO, 2010; TELLES, 2009) aimed to promote L2 communication and intercultural competence in L2 settings, and as an alternative to traditional Face-to-Face (FTF) exposure commonly used in L2 classrooms. While the majority of previous studies on Teletandem for L2 learning have mainly examined its benefits, focusing on the different approaches used by learners in this medium and proposing strategies on how to implement its context in higher education language programs (see CANDIDO, 2010; CAVALARI, 2010), a critical overview of Teletandem research reveals a paucity of empirically supported evidence for the benefits of Teletandem on L2 development. Specifically, no empirical comparisons have been conducted between this medium and traditional face-to-face (FTF) instruction in the L2 classroom. This paper addresses this issue and reports on an empirical investigation of the benefits of this medium when compared to FTF exposure in relation to L2 fluency.