Flowers Of Species Research Articles

Field edge flower plantings have variable effects on wild bee abundance, richness, nesting success, and crop pollination, independent of the surrounding landscape

To mitigate the effects of habitat loss on bee conservation and crop pollination, farmers are encouraged to plant flowers along the edges of crop fields. However, it is unclear where and to what degree these flower plantings are effective. Recent studies suggest that flower plantings may be less effective if they are established in landscapes with either very low or very high amounts of non-crop habitat. Moreover, while field edge flower plantings often increase the abundance and richness of bees in field edges, it is unclear whether this improves crop pollination or bee nesting success, which could increase bee populations over time. In this study we examined how field edge flower plantings and the landscape context in which they are established affect wild bee conservation and crop pollination. Across two years we established flower plantings of 0.1–0.5 ha along the edges of 17 of 34 commercial cucumber fields arranged across a gradient of landscape complexity. We then measured wild bee abundance, richness, and crop pollination in and around cucumber fields with and without plantings and assessed the nesting success of stem-nesting bees. We found that both field edge flowers and landscape-scale non-crop habitat had independent, positive effects on bee abundance, richness, nesting, or crop pollination in one of the two years of the study, and that the effects of field edge flowers on bees and crop pollination were not influenced by the surrounding landscape. We also found that managing field edges in a way that maintains naturally-occurring flowers may matter as much or more than flower plantings for short-term increases in bee abundance and richness. However, certain species of planted flowers might be associated with improved bee nesting success, an outcome important for both bee conservation and sustained crop pollination.

Proximate cues of flowering in a subtropical rain forest

AbstractPlants have evolved mechanisms to track seasonal variation in environmental resources, enabling them to time key life‐history events to appropriate seasons. While the proximate cues for flowering initiation are well documented in the temperate region, it is still unclear what the flowering cues are in the tropics, especially in the subtropics. Our study compared first flowering dates (FFDs) predicted by eight hypothesized proximate cues concerning photoperiod, mean and directional changes in solar irradiance and warm/cool temperature, and rainfall with flowering dates observed over 19 years of weekly monitoring for 16 species in a subtropical rain forest. We observed considerable interannual variation in the median FFDs for the study species, ranging from 21 to 101 days. The early‐spring flowering species tended to have greater interannual variation in FFDs than the summer flowering species. For 13 study species, temperature cues best explained interannual variation in FFDs. Cool temperatures in the previous fall/winter and warm temperatures in the current spring (or previous summer) might trigger the onset of flowering in these 13 species. Cues associated with photoperiod and irradiance also predicted interannual variation in FFDs with small root mean square error (<1.5 census intervals) for 12 species but generally had higher prediction errors than temperature‐related cues. Cues associated with seasonal variation in rainfall failed to predict flowering times in any species. Our results suggest that future changes in temperature may alter flowering times for most species in subtropical forests, leading to changes in ecosystem processes and biosphere feedback to the climate system.Abstract in Chinese is available with online material.

Evaluation of Commercial Viability of Eco-friendly Alternatives to Traditional Floral Foam and Their Effects on Vase Life of Five Species of Cut Flowers

Increasingly, consumers are indicating that they would be willing to pay a premium for floral designs from a more sustainable floral provider. During the past several years, more environmentally sustainable floral foams and foam alternative media have been developed as an eco-friendly alternative to traditional floral foams comprised of phenol-formaldehyde plastics. Phenol-formaldehyde foam breaks down into microplastics, which ends up in landfills, soils, and waterways—including the planet’s oceans—if not disposed of properly. Eco-friendly foam alternatives are made from natural materials such as basalt minerals and coconut (Cocos nucifera) fiber (coir). The objective of this study was to investigate eco-friendly floral substrates for their commercial viability in the floral industry by analyzing the vase life of five of the most commonly use cut flower species in traditional vs. eco-friendly foam alternatives. Flowers selected for the experiment included ‘Freedom’ rose (Rosa hybrid), ‘Orange Queen’ alstroemeria (Alstroemeria hybrid), ‘Atlantis Yellow’ chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflorum), ‘Pink Nelson’ carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), and ‘Million Star’ baby’s breath (Gypsophila paniculate). The flowers were selected based on their importance to the floral industry with regard to their overall volume of use in floral arrangements and volume of production. The findings from this study indicate the traditional phenol-formaldehyde–based floral foam maintained vase life longer for a majority of the flowers tested when compared with basalt floral fiber medium and coir pouches. However, the basalt floral fiber medium maintained a vase life of more than 7 days for all flowers tested, indicating it is an adequate medium to use in retail floral design production. The coir pouch did not maintain the customer-expected vase life of 7 days for all but one of the cultivars tested. This indicates that coir pouches are generally not suitable for traditional everyday retail floral design use, but could potentially be acceptable for special occasion designs in which the consumer prefers or specifies a more sustainable approach and/or can accept a shorter vase life.

A Brief Review on Synthetic Pyrethroids-prospective Peril to Aquatic Fauna Especially Fish

The application of pesticides is required to manage and control the pest population in agricultural fields to fulfill the basic food demand of the growing global population. Synthetic pyrethroids are insecticides that are introduced over the past two decades for agricultural procedures as replacements for organophosphates and carbamates for controlling pests and increasing food production. Pyrethroids are derived from pyrethrins, which are organically acquired after extraction from the flowers of Chrysanthemum species (i.e., cinerariaefolium and coccineum). Synthetic pyrethroids are neurotoxic in their MoA (mode of action). The voltage-sensitive sodium channels in nervous system are the actual site of pyrethroid action. Studies have shown pyrethroids as more stable and persistent in environment hence are percolation prone. . KEYWORDS :Environment, Fish, Pyrethrin, Synthetic-pyrethroid, Toxicity

Feeding conditions of the interspecific bumblebee association (Hymenoptera, Apidae, <i>Bombus</i>) in the central forest-steppe of the Omsk Region

This article reports that the main food plants of bumblebees of the interspecific association of the central forest-steppe of the Omsk Region during the period of flight activity (I decade of May – III decade of September) are 120 plant species from 30 families. Common and fairly common species predominate, which, under the condition of medium, high and superfroductivity, form the forage base. All rare, quite rare, very rare, as well as unproductive common and unproductive fairly common plant species perform a supporting function in the nutrition of bumblebees. At the beginning of the flight activity of bumblebees, low and medium-productive species predominate, then after the beginning of flowering of new species, highly and super-productive ones are included in the feed spectrum – there is a change in food conditions from unfavorable to favorable. During the main flight period, bumblebees feed or forage on 99 plant species, among which fairly ordinary medium-productive species predominate. Before the second decade of August, three peaks in the expansion of the food spectrum were revealed: in the third decade of May (by 15 species), in the second decade of June (by 31 species) and in the second decade of July (by 20 species). The exclusion of plants from the bumblebee diet occurs every decade. The greatest peaks were recorded in the II decade of July and in the III decade of August – by 21 species. Starting from the first decade of September, there is a change in food conditions from favorable to unfavorable. In general, the feed base of bumblebees of the interspecific association of the central forest-steppe of the Omsk Region has a stable character and allows to provide bumblebees with a sufficient volume of full-fledged feed.

Unlocking Nature’s Clock: CRISPR Technology in Flowering Time Engineering

Flowering is a crucial process in the life cycle of most plants as it is essential for the reproductive success and genetic diversity of the species. There are situations in which breeders want to expedite, delay, or prevent flowering, for example, to shorten or prolong vegetative growth, to prevent unwanted pollination, to reduce the risk of diseases or pests, or to modify the plant’s phenotypes. This review aims to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge to use CRISPR/Cas9, a powerful genome-editing technology to modify specific DNA sequences related to flowering induction. We discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms governing the regulation of the photoperiod, autonomous, vernalization, hormonal, sugar, aging, and temperature signal pathways regulating the flowering time. In addition, we are investigating the most effective strategies for nominating target genes. Furthermore, we have collected a dataset showing successful applications of CRISPR technology to accelerate flowering in several plant species from 2015 up to date. Finally, we explore the opportunities and challenges of using the potential of CRISPR technology in flowering time engineering.

An ecological transcriptome approach to capture the molecular and physiological mechanisms of mass flowering in Shorea curtisii.

Climatic factors have commonly been attributed as the trigger of general flowering, a unique community-level mass flowering phenomenon involving most dipterocarp species that forms the foundation of Southeast Asian tropical rainforests. This intriguing flowering event is often succeeded by mast fruiting, which provides a temporary yet substantial burst of food resources for animals, particularly frugivores. However, the physiological mechanism that triggers general flowering, particularly in dipterocarp species, is not well understood largely due to its irregular and unpredictable occurrences in the tall and dense forests. To shed light on this mechanism, we employed ecological transcriptomic analyses on an RNA-seq dataset of a general flowering species, Shorea curtisii (Dipterocarpaceae), sequenced from leaves and buds collected at multiple vegetative and flowering phenological stages. We assembled 64,219 unigenes from the transcriptome of which 1,730 and 3,559 were differentially expressed in the leaf and the bud, respectively. Differentially expressed unigene clusters were found to be enriched with homologs of Arabidopsis thaliana genes associated with response to biotic and abiotic stresses, nutrient level, and hormonal treatments. When combined with rainfall data, our transcriptome data reveals that the trees were responding to a brief period of drought prior to the elevated expression of key floral promoters and followed by differential expression of unigenes that indicates physiological changes associated with the transition from vegetative to reproductive stages. Our study is timely for a representative general flowering dipterocarp species that occurs in forests that are under the constant threat of deforestation and climate change as it pinpoints important climate sensitive and flowering-related homologs and offers a glimpse into the cascade of gene expression before and after the onset of floral initiation.

Flower size constrains reproductive potential in three Andean monkeyflower species

AbstractPlants exhibit contrasting flower morphologies depending on their reproductive strategy, with autogamous species typically having smaller flowers than allogamous ones. Flower size can restrict the reproductive potential of species, as the development among flower parts is interrelated. This can result in a constraint on ovary size in adult plants, reducing the number of ovules produced, particularly in autogamous species with small flowers, in contrast to allogamous species with larger flowers. To test this hypothesis, we studied the static allometric relationships (allometry measured at mature flowers) of monkeyflower species (Erythranthe) endemic to the Andean region, including an autogamous species (E. glabrata), two allogamous species (E. depressa and E. lutea), and hybrids obtained from E. depressa × E. lutea crosses. We measured flower traits, counted ovules, and determined the static allometric relationships among traits for all taxa. Our study revealed that static allometric relationships are highly maintained among studied Erythranthe, with flower length serving as a crucial indicator of the dimensions that different flower parts reach. This suggests that flower length is an important factor determining the maternal reproductive potential in Erythranthe, with both autogamous and allogamous species showing a positive relationship between flower length and ovule number. Overall, investigating allometric relationships in Erythranthe, including hybrids, can shed light on the complex interactions between flower morphology and reproductive strategies in plants.

Coupled information networks drive honeybee (Apis mellifera) collective foraging.

Collective behaviour by eusocial insect colonies is typically achieved through multiple communication networks that produce complex behaviour at the group level but often appear to provide redundant or even competing information. A classic example occurs in honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies, where both the dance communication system and robust scent-based mechanisms contribute to the allocation of a colony's workforce by regulating the flow of experienced foragers among known food sources. Here we analysed social connectivity patterns during the reactivation of experienced foragers to familiar feeding sites to show that these social information pathways are not simply multiple means to achieve the same end but intersect to play complementary roles in guiding forager behaviour. Using artificial feeding stations, we mimicked a natural scenario in which two forager groups were simultaneously collecting from distinct patches containing different flowering species. We then observed the reactivation of these groups at their familiar feeding sites after interrupting their foraging. Social network analysis revealed that temporarily unemployed individuals interacted more often and for longer with foragers that advertised a familiar versus unfamiliar foraging site. Due to such resource-based assortative mixing, network-based diffusion analysis estimated that reactivation events primarily resulted from interactions among bees that had been trained to the same feeding station and less so from different-feeder interactions. Both scent- and dance-based interactions strongly contributed to reactivation decisions. However, each bout of dance-following had an especially strong effect on a follower's likelihood of reactivation, particularly when dances indicated locations familiar to followers. Our findings illustrate how honeybee foragers can alter their social connectivity in ways that are likely to enhance collective outcomes by enabling foragers to rapidly access up-to-date information about familiar foraging sites. In addition, our results highlight how reliance on multiple communication mechanisms enables social insect workers to utilise flexible information-use strategies that are robust to variation in the availability of social information.

Floral interventions enhance flower visitor communities and pollination services in moringa plantations

Abstract Pollination is a crucial ecosystem service contributing to global food security. Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is an economically important tropical crop, mostly cultivated by smallholder farmers. Well‐established approaches of planting flower‐rich patches used in temperate agroecosystems for pollination enhancement were adapted to tropical moringa systems. Based on existing evidence, we hypothesised that floral interventions would improve flower visitor diversity and abundance in the crop, thereby increasing pollination services and moringa yield and quality. We used standardised methods to survey flower visitors on moringa and assess economically relevant measures of crop yield quality and quantity. We selected 24 moringa fields in Tamil Nadu, India, to compare fields with and without floral interventions. We planted red gram, Cajanus cajan as a border crop, and marigold, Tagetes erecta as an intercrop on moringa fields to enhance floral resource availability for pollinators. These interventions were co‐designed with local farmers to ensure additional benefits to their community. We found that flower visitor abundance and species richness were significantly (50% for abundance and 33% for species richness) greater in fields with floral interventions compared with control fields. We also found that the percentage of flowers that resulted in harvestable fruits were significantly (30%) greater in fields with floral intervention. Production benefits in yield and quality were significantly positively correlated with the abundance and species richness of flower visitors. Synthesis and applications. Our results provide clear evidence that floral interventions in the form of intercropping and border cropping can enhance pollinator communities and services they provide in tropical smallholder systems. These findings underpin a practical management option for farmers to enhance flower visitor communities and pollination services, which can potentially also provide additional co‐benefits to farmers, improving livelihoods and sustainable production.

The effects of pesticides on tomato pollinators depend on application practices and floral visitor assemblage

AbstractPesticide use affects biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. Yet, such effects may vary between pesticides, dosage, application timing and pollinator assemblage in the study area. Understanding such diversity of effects is essential to enable integrated pest management practices that minimize negative impacts on pollinators. Here, we use a controlled experiment to compare different strategies of pesticide application in tomato crops: no application, low‐intensity applications (every 7 days) and high‐intensity application (every 3–4 days) with the last being the usual practice used by farmers in the study region. We focus on imidacloprid that is a neonicotinoid insecticide commonly used in Brazil. We show the negative effects of imidacloprid on the pollinator visitation rate of tomato flowers varied between flower visitor species. While the bee Paratrigona lineata was negatively affected by the imidacloprid application, no effects were detected when analysing all other bees as a group, indicating a null net effect. Although some studies have shown this insecticide is extremely harmful to bees' health, others showed that some bees do not avoid it, which may explain our results. However, the visitation rate recovery for P. lineata was only detected in the less than the more intensive treatment after imidacloprid applications ceased. The fact that no differences in fruit production were detected between treatments (including control blocks) could result from a null net effect of the negative effects on pollinators and positive effects on pest control. Further studies would be needed to disentangle the two effects.

Complex Effects of a Land-Use Gradient on Pollinators and Natural Enemies: Natural Habitats Mitigate the Effects of Aphid Infestation on Pollination Services.

Pollinators and natural enemies are essential ecosystem service providers influenced by land-use and by interactions between them. However, the understanding of the combined impacts of these factors on pollinator and natural enemy activities and their ultimate effects on plant productivity remains limited. We investigated the effects of local and landscape vegetation characteristics and the presence of herbivorous pests on pollination and biological control services and their combined influence on phytometer seed set. The study was conducted in a Mediterranean agro-ecosystem, encompassing ten shrubland plots spanning a land-use gradient. Within each plot, we placed caged and uncaged potted phytometer plants that were either aphid-infested or aphid-free. We quantified insect flower visitation, aphid predation and parasitism rates, and fruit and seed set. We found scale-dependent responses of pollinators and natural enemies to land-use characteristics. Flower species richness had a positive impact on aphid parasitism rates but a negative effect on pollinator activity. Notably, we found a more pronounced positive effect of natural areas on pollinator activity in aphid-infested compared to aphid-free plants, indicating a potentially critical role of natural habitats in mitigating the adverse effects of aphid infestation on pollination services. These results highlight the complex and interactive effects of land-use on pollinators and natural enemies, with significant implications for plant productivity.

Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses.

Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study's goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being.

Artificial flowers as a tool for investigating multimodal flower choice in wild insects.

Flowers come in a variety of colours, shapes, sizes and odours. Flowers also differ in the quality and quantity of nutritional reward they provide to entice potential pollinators to visit. Given this diversity, generalist flower-visiting insects face the considerable challenge of deciding which flowers to feed on and which to ignore. Working with real flowers poses logistical challenges due to correlations between flower traits, maintenance costs and uncontrolled variables. Here, we overcome this challenge by designing multimodal artificial flowers that varied in visual, olfactory and reward attributes. We used artificial flowers to investigate the impact of seven floral attributes (three visual cues, two olfactory cues and two rewarding attributes) on flower visitation and species richness. We investigated how flower attributes influenced two phases of the decision-making process: the decision to land on a flower, and the decision to feed on a flower. Artificial flowers attracted 890 individual insects representing 15 morphospecies spanning seven arthropod orders. Honeybees were the most common visitors accounting for 46% of visitors. Higher visitation rates were driven by the presence of nectar, the presence of linalool, flower shape and flower colour and was negatively impacted by the presence of citral. Species richness was driven by the presence of nectar, the presence of linalool and flower colour. For hymenopterans, the probability of landing on the artificial flowers was influenced by the presence of nectar or pollen, shape and the presence of citral and/or linalool. The probability of feeding increased when flowers contained nectar. For dipterans, the probability of landing on artificial flowers increased when the flower was yellow and contained linalool. The probability of feeding increased when flowers contained pollen, nectar and linalool. Our results demonstrate the multi-attribute nature of flower preferences and highlight the usefulness of artificial flowers as tools for studying flower visitation in wild insects.

Impact of Climate Change on Flowering Phenology and Abundance on Mertensia spp.

This research article delves into the intricate dance between climate change and two enchanting flower species, Mertensia fusiformis and M. ciliata. These blossoms, with their nodding blue petals and elegant foliage, grace the Great Basin and alpine meadows. However, their delicate beauty conceals a resilient spirit, tested by the relentless forces of climate change. We explore the physiology of these flowers, uncovering the influence of rising temperatures on their flowering patterns. M. fusiformis tends to bloom earlier, adapting to shifting climatic cues. In contrast, M. ciliata shows variations in flower size and coloration. The consequences of climate change ripple through these species' distribution and habitat suitability. Warmer temperatures propel M. fusiformis to higher elevations, where it faces new challenges and competition. M. ciliata experiences habitat loss as alpine treelines ascend, pushing it into crevices and microclimates. These flowers' pollination mechanisms also adapt to changing conditions, with shifts in pollinator behavior and abundance disrupting their age-old partnerships. Conclusively, climate change orchestrates a captivating yet disquieting symphony in the lives of Mertensia fusiformis and M. ciliata. They stand as messengers, urging us to acknowledge the fragility of our ecosystems and take action to preserve the beauty of our planet's flora.

Island area, isolation and climate effects upon flower traits in a megadiverse archipelago

AbstractAimFlower traits are critical to the mutualistic networks that underpin ecosystem function. However, the broad‐scale drivers of flower traits are unclear. Using the megadiverse islands of Malesia, we test three hypotheses: (1) Flower size, openness and colourfulness (i.e. the trend from white to colourful flowers) will decrease with increasing temperature, but not with increasing precipitation seasonality. (2) Flower size, openness and colourfulness will increase with island area, and decrease with isolation. (3) Models parameterised by climate, rather than non‐climatic island characteristics will have the greatest predictive capacity as climate affects both pollinator communities and energetic/physiological constraints upon flower traits.LocationFourteen Malesian islands.TaxonAngiosperms.MethodsWe applied Bayesian phylogenetic models of occurrence for >2500 species in 400 m elevation bands, across islands, as a function of flower trait interactions with either climatic variables or islands characteristics. We compare predictive capacity of models based on climate versus island characteristics using Leave One Out‐Cross Validation.ResultsAll six flower traits examined varied with at least temperature, precipitation seasonality, island area and isolation. Flowers are larger in cold environments. The lowland tropics are mostly inhabited by white flowered species. At cold high elevations, red and pink flowered species are more frequent whereas green and purple flowered species increase in the drought‐prone seasonally dry tropics. Flower openness declined with precipitation seasonality and increased with isolation. Models parameterised by climate performed best for perianth length, red and white flowers, whereas pink flowers and flower openness were better predicted using island characteristics.Main ConclusionsThere are relationships between flower traits and climatic gradients within Malesia. However, island characteristics have also left a legacy upon current flower trait distributions. These island biogeographical impacts are likely key for the eco‐evolutionary drivers of flower traits.

Study of the Earliest Symptoms of Plum Pox in the Sofia Valley and Vratsa Region

Since ancient times, the fruits of the plum have occupied an important place on the table of the Bulgarians. To obtain high and stable yields an important condition is the proper organization and conduct of plant protection activities and the fast, the correct and accurate diagnosis of PPV - Stoneware. In our climate, Plum pattern manifests symptoms first on the first spring leaves. The described symptoms of flowers in different stone species are few and scarce, so we conducted the present study in two following years 2019 and 2020 to describe, differentiate and compare visual symptoms of flowering with the results of DAS-ELISA tests on the leaves of the studied stone species. From the surveyed PPV host species in two orchards 12 mather trees with color symptoms were selected and described in two regions of Bulgaria - the Sofia field (Vrajdebna (1,2 ha) and the Vratsa region (Roman Orchard Nursery (0,4 ha). In a total of 9 samples, PPV infection was confirmed. The established deviations were found only in fruit crops that bloom with white flowers. Based on the results and conclusions, the present study will contribute to the timely detection of the causative agent of pox virus in the earliest symptoms in nurseries and gardens and will provide the right and quick direction to overcome the damage through proper plant protection activities

Vegetative growth and flowering of dragon fruit species according to branch pruning management and application of superabsorbent polymer

The cultivation of dragon fruit has been standing out considerably in Brazil, however, although on the rise, information onthe cultivation of this fruit, such as pruning management in young orchards and the use of superabsorbent polymer in thecrop, is scarce. In this sense, in order to remedy producers’ obstacles regarding the management of orchard formation, theobjective of this study was to evaluate the influence of pruning management and the efficiency of hydrogel in the vegetativeand reproductive development in two different species of dragon fruit (Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus),in addition to defining the best dose of the polymer to be used in the crop. The work was developed at IFSULDEMINAS –Machado Campus. The design used was the randomized block design, in a factorial scheme (2x2x3), the first factor beingcomposed of the two species of dragon fruit, the second, by two cladode pruning levels (with and without pruning), and thethird, by three doses of the superabsorbent polymer Hydroplan-EB® (0; 1.5; 4.5 g plant-1). The following characteristicswere evaluated: number and length of shoots; total number of flowers; total number of fruits; number of aborted flowers;picking percentage; mean fruit mass; longitudinal and transverse diameter of fruits; peel thickness; pulp yield; peel massand productivity. The practice of cladode pruning, as well as the application of the superabsorbent polymer, did not influencemost of the characteristics evaluated. Further studies should be conducted to delve deeper into the management techniquesused in this study.

Is there silicon in flowers and what does it tell us?

The emergence of flowers marked an important development in plant evolution. Flowers in many species evolved to attract animal pollinators to increase fertilisation chances. In leaves, silicon (Si) discourages herbivores, for example by wearing down mouthparts. Flowers are essentially modified leaves and hence may also have the capacity to accumulate Si. If Si in flowers discourages animal visitors as it does in leaves, Si accumulation may be disadvantageous for pollination. Whether flowers accumulate Si, and what the implications may be, was not known for many species. We analysed leaves and flowers of different taxa, separated into their different anatomical parts. Flowers mostly have low Si concentrations in all parts (mean ± SE of BSi in mg g-1 was 0.22 ± 0.04 in petals, 0.59 ± 0.24 in sepals, 0.14 ± 0.03 in stamens, 0.15 ± 0.04 in styles and stigmas and 0.37 ± 0.19 in ovaries for a subset of 56 species). In most cases, less Si was accumulated in flowers than in leaves (mean ± SE of BSi in mg g-1 was 1.51 ± 0.55 in whole flowers vs. 2.97 ± 0.57 in leaves in 104 species) though intriguing exceptions are found, with some species accumulating more Si in flowers than leaves. The large variation in concentration among flowers across the taxa examined, with a particularly high concentration in grass inflorescences, tantalisingly suggests differences in the use of Si for flowers across plant groups. We conclude that the study of the functions of Si for flowers warrants more attention, with pollination strategy a potential contributing factor.

Piecewise Linear Approximation-Driven Primal SVM Approach for Improved Iris Classification Efficiency

Classification, a crucial aspect of machine learning, revolves around the meticulous analysis of data. However, the complexity of diverse life forms on Earth poses a challenge in distinguishing species that share similar attributes. The iris flower, with its subspecies exemplifies this challenge. The aim of the paper is to develop a methodology that not only enhances classification accuracy but also effectively addresses computational efficiency, facilitating faster and more practical categorization of iris patterns. This novel approach named Piecewise Linear Approximation based SVM (PLA-SVM) is applied to flower species classification and is benchmarked against alternative machine learning techniques. Implementation is carried out utilizing MATLAB – GUROBI interface of and GUROBI Solver. The performance metrics such as accuracy, precision, F1 score and ROC – AUC Curve are used to compare proposed algorithm performance. This comprehensive analysis enables a comparative study of diverse algorithms, ultimately validating the proposed PLA-SVM technique using the Iris dataset. The numerical implementation results shows that the PLASVM outperforms the existing standard classifiers in terms of different performance matrices.