Flowering Date Research Articles

CONSTANS Polymorphism Modulates Flowering Time and Maturity in Soybean.

CONSTANS (CO) plays a critical role in the photoperiodic flowering pathway. However, the function of soybean CO orthologs and the molecular mechanisms in regulating flowering remain largely unknown. This study characterized the natural variations in CO family genes and their association with flowering time and maturity in soybeans. A total of 21 soybean CO family genes (GmCOLs) were cloned and sequenced in 128 varieties covering 14 known maturity groups (MG 0000-MG X from earliest to latest maturity). Regarding the whole genomic region involving these genes, GmCOL1, GmCOL3, GmCOL8, GmCOL9, GmCOL10, and GmCOL13 were conserved, and the remaining 15 genes showed genetic variation that was brought about by mutation, namely, all single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertions-deletions (InDels). In addition, a few genes showed some strong linkage disequilibrium. Point mutations were found in 15 GmCOL genes, which can lead to changes in the potential protein structure. Early flowering and maturation were related to eight genes (GmCOL1/3/4/8/13/15/16/19). For flowering and maturation, 11 genes (GmCOL2/5/6/14/20/22/23/24/25/26/28) expressed divergent physiognomy. Haplotype analysis indicated that the haplotypes of GmCOL5-Hap2, GmCOL13-Hap2/3, and GmCOL28-Hap2 were associated with flowering dates and soybean maturity. This study helps address the role of GmCOL family genes in adapting to diverse environments, particularly when it is necessary to regulate soybean flowering dates and maturity.

Altitudinalpatterns of species richness and flowering phenologyin herbaceous community in Qilian Mountains of China.

In montane systems, there are normally significant spatial differences in vegetation community structure and ecological processes due to the complex topography. The study of such topographic effect can provide scientific basis for the prediction of vegetation dynamics. In this work, the effects of altitude and slope aspect on species richness and flowering phenology of herbaceous communities were investigated in Qilian Mountains, a typical mountainous region in arid climate zones of China. Our monitoring of 102 plots in 34 sites revealed that there were significant topographic effects on species richness and flowering phenology. Specifically, the results showed a spatial pattern that the average number of species in plots was slightly higher at middle altitudes, and was higher on shady than sunny slopes. In flowering phenology, the flowering onsets of low-altitude and sunny-slope communities are generally earlier than that of high-altitude and shady-slope communities, respectively, while the ending dates of flowering between slope aspects and between altitudes are relatively small. This topographic effect revealed the influences of temperature and soil moisture on community structure and flowering phenology, which is reflected in the inverse responses of species richness to temperature and soil water content, and the high sensitivity of flowering phenology to temperature. It can be inferred that under the conditions of climate warming and wetting in the future, the species diversity of herbaceous community may increase at high altitudes, and the flowering duration is likely to be further prolonged in Qilian Mountains.

Automated variety trial plot growth and flowering detection for maize and soybean using machine vision

Hundreds of crop variety trial sites are operated across Australia with up to 100 small plots (20 m2) that require manual, labour-intensive monitoring for emergence, height, canopy cover and flowering status. Machine vision systems can reduce labour in monitoring, and infield fixed cameras are most suitable to provide low-cost continuous sensing without requiring labour of travelling to sites. Height is commonly detected using stereo cameras; however, a low-cost single camera system is preferable for broad scale use at variety trial sites. Existing low-cost fixed camera systems assess multiple plots in the image’s field of view from a fixed mask that needs to be manually updated as the crop grows. Perspective transformation could be applied automatically to identify plot locations in the image. Existing systems also analyse multiple images independently and filter results to remove impacts from lighting variations. An alternative approach is to only analyse images in the same lighting conditions each day to reduce the need for filtering. In addition, a series of daily images can be used to track multiple leaf positions to monitor plant growth. A machine vision system has been developed that combines these technologies to track plant height from a series of daily images selected in the same lighting conditions, in combination with perspective transformation, in multiple plots in the camera’s field of view. Emergence, canopy cover and flowering status were also identified at the canopy surface in each plot using colour segmentation and/or shape analysis. The algorithms were evaluated on 5 and 10 m towers monitoring randomised trials of 16 maize and soybean plots and detected maize flowering date within one day, soybean height (RMSE = 18.38 cm; R2 = 0.880), maize height (RMSE = 47.73 cm; R2 = 0.838), soybean canopy cover (RMSE = 22.14%; R2 = 0.818) and maize canopy cover (RMSE = 14.01%; R2 = 0.750). The larger error in maize height detection was due to the flowers being tracked by the algorithm instead of vegetation. Further work is required to transfer the algorithms to other crops and varieties.

Plants in the UK flower a month earlier under recent warming.

Global temperatures are rising at an unprecedented rate, but environmental responses are often difficult to recognize and quantify. Long-term observations of plant phenology, the annually recurring sequence of plant developmental stages, can provide sensitive measures of climate change and important information for ecosystem services. Here, we present 419 354 recordings of the first flowering date from 406 plant species in the UK between 1753 and 2019 CE. Community-wide first flowering advanced by almost one month on average when comparing all observations before and after 1986 (p < 0.0001). The mean first flowering time is 6 days earlier in southern than northern sites, 5 days earlier under urban than rural settings, and 1 day earlier at lower than higher elevations. Compared to trees and shrubs, the largest lifeform-specific phenological shift of 32 days is found in herbs, which are generally characterized by fast turnover rates and potentially high levels of genetic adaptation. Correlated with January–April maximum temperatures at −0.81 from 1952–2019 (p < 0.0001), the observed trends (5.4 days per decade) and extremes (66 days between the earliest and latest annual mean) in the UK's first flowering dataset can affect the functioning and productivity of ecosystems and agriculture.

Long‐term changes in flowering synchrony reflect climatic changes across an elevational gradient

Synchrony defines an organism's overlap with potential resources and mates, essential for survival and reproduction. Flowering synchrony influences gene flow within species and patterns of interaction among plants and with other trophic levels, including pollinators. Climate‐change driven shifts in plant phenology may disrupt plant–plant and plant–pollinator interactions, resulting in reshuffling of communities and altered ecosystem processes. We present a unique long‐term metacommunity‐wide study relating changes in flowering synchrony within and among species along an elevational gradient to changes in local climatic conditions. We apply a circular statistical method that estimates flowering phenology overlap between entire flowering distributions, overcoming limitations and biases of single indicators such as first and last flowering dates. We analyzed more than 300 000 flowering overlap estimates between 217 species in five plant communities across a 1267 m gradient over four decades (1984–2019) in the southwestern USA. We show that co‐flowering synchrony significantly decreased in all plant communities, with a maximum of 28.1% of synchrony lost at the lowest elevations. Decreased synchrony was significantly negatively correlated with increasing temperatures recorded across the gradient. Reduced precipitation had locally‐dependent effects and, in combination with warmer temperatures, accelerated the decrease in synchrony, especially at the lowest elevations. Flowering synchrony within plant species occurring in multiple communities increased between most community pairs, with a maximum increase of 30.5%, and at accelerated rates in recent years. The exception, likely associated with differences in topography, was a 5.6% decrease in synchrony between the two highest‐elevation communities. Overall, increased synchrony within species occurring at multiple elevations indicates homogenization of flowering phenology across the gradient. These results show significant reshaping of flowering synchrony within and between plant communities in response to changing climate. Because plant phenology influences many ecological processes, such fundamental changes may have far‐reaching and negative effects on ecosystem stability.

Spatiotemporal Variation of Osmanthus fragrans Phenology in China in Response to Climate Change From 1973 to 1996.

Climate change greatly affects spring and autumn plant phenology around the world consequently, and significantly impacts ecosystem function and the social economy. However, autumn plant phenology, especially autumn flowering phenology, has not been studied so far. In this study, we examined the spatiotemporal pattern of Osmanthus fragrans phenology, including both leaf phenology (the date of bud-bust, BBD; first leaf unfolding, FLD; and 50% of leaf unfolding, 50 LD) and flowering phenology (the date of first flowering, FFD; peak of flowering, PFD; and end of flowering, EFD). Stepwise multiple linear regressions were employed to analyze the relationships between phenophases and climatic factors in the long term phenological data collected by the Chinese Phenological Observation Network from 1973 to 1996. The results showed that spring leaf phenophases and autumn flowering phenophases were strongly affected by latitude. BBD, FLD, and 50LD of O. fragrans were delayed by 3.98, 3.93, and 4.40 days as per degree of latitude increased, while FFD, PFD and EFD in O. fragrans advanced 3.11, 3.26, and 2.99 days, respectively. During the entire study period, BBD was significantly delayed across the region, whereas no significant trends were observed either in FLD or 50LD. Notably, all flowering phenophases of O. fragrans were delayed. Both leaf and flowering phenophases negatively correlated with growing degree-days (GDD) and cold degree-days (CDD), respectively. BBD and FLD were negatively correlated with total annual precipitation. In addition to the effects of climate on autumn flowering phenology, we found that earlier spring leaf phenophases led to delayed autumn flowering phenophases. Our results suggest that future climate change and global warming might delay the phenological sequence of O. fragrans. Our findings also advanced the flowering mechanism study of autumn flowering plants, and facilitated the accurate prediction of future phenology and climate change.

Improved forecasting of coffee leaf rust by qualitative modeling: Design and expert validation of the ExpeRoya model

CONTEXTCoffee leaf rust (CLR) epidemics on Coffea arabica have led to severe socio-economic crises in Latin America starting in 2008. Until now, the scattered nature of scientific and empirical knowledge of the highly complex CLR-coffee pathosystem has been an obstacle to the development of CLR forecasting models. OBJECTIVETo help prevent new severe epidemics, we built ExpeRoya, a qualitative model, based on a review of the scientific literature and expert opinion, to forecast the risk of a monthly increase in the incidence of CLR at plot and landscape levels. METHODSWe adopted the IPSIM (Injury Profile SIMulator) framework, a qualitative and aggregative modeling approach that describes the effects of the cropping system and the plot environment on injuries, thereby making it possible to incorporate scattered knowledge on the system and all its complexity in a simplified way. Involving experts makes this approach powerful and robust because it builds on empirical knowledge based on a very large number of field observations. We argue that broad expert knowledge provides more accurate information on the manifold interactions in the system than existing quantitative models can. The structure of ExpeRoya was discussed with coffee sector experts in 19 workshops and validated in an online survey with 17 CLR experts. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSExpeRoya successfully integrates in a simple way 229 multiple interactions that exist within the CLR-coffee pathosystem based on only 12 input variables easily acquired in the field: one incidence monitoring variable; two meteorological variables (temperature and rainfall), four crop management variables (management of shade cover, fungicide application, nutrition and pruning of coffee trees) and five coffee tree characteristics (dates of flowering, beginning and end of harvest, fruit load and cultivar genetic resistance). Coffee institutes in Honduras and Nicaragua now use ExpeRoya, hosted by the platform Pergamino (https://www.redpergamino.net/app-experoya), to assist them in preparing their monthly CLR warning bulletins for growers. ExpeRoya is an improved forecasting model of CLR by fully incorporating the main biophysical factors affecting CLR at the plot and landscape levels. SIGNIFICANCEExpeRoya is both a framework and a proof of concept that improves both forecasting and the comprehensive modeling of CLR. ExpeRoya is a powerful yet user-friendly model designed for all actors of the coffee sector, particularly smallholder farmers and extension agents. ExpeRoya is adaptable: users can modify the model according to advances in knowledge and/or their own expertise of the system. ExpeRoya can help prevent future socio-economic crises.

Vermikompost Uygulamalarının San Andreas (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) Çilek Çeşidinin Bazı Verim ve Kalite Değerlerine Etkisi

In this study, in which the effects of different applications of vermicompost on the yield and quality of San Andreas strawberry variety were investigated 15, 30, 45, 60 g vermicompost was applied per plant. First flowering, first and last harvest dates, number of fruits per plant, yield per plant (g/plant), fruit weight (g), fruit flavor, macro and micro nutrient content, organic acid amounts were examined. The results showed that the differences between treatments in yield per plant were statistically significant. The highest total yield per plant was obtained from V45 and V30 applications with 972.8 g and 878.9 g respectively and the lowest yield was obtained from the control application with 384.2 g per plant. The largest fruits were obtained from the V60 (19.5 g) application. It was determined that nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, manganese, iron, zinc and boron concentrations in the leaves of strawberry plants fertilized with vermicompost were higher than the control. The highest values in organic acid values were determined in oxalic, propionic, malonic, lactic, fumaric and succinic acids in V60 application (5.62, 11.16, 49.00, 104.98 µg/100 g respectively). It seems that the application of vermicompost fertilizer in strawberry cultivation has a positive effect on yield and quality characteristics.

Phenological advance in the South African Namaqualand Daisy First and Peak Bloom: 1935-2018.

The annual Namaqualand daisy flowering spectacle is a world-renowned environmental event. Using documentary sources, including newspaper archives from The Rand Daily Mail, Volksblad and Die Burger and social media records from Flickr and iNaturalist, the first long-term phenological dataset spanning 1935-2018 was compiled for the Namaqualand region. The dataset contains first flowering, full bloom and end of bloom dates for the Namaqualand daisies. This study explores shifts in the timing of Namaqualand daisy bloom, and the role of climate in driving these phenological shifts. First flowering and full bloom phenology of the Namaqualand daisies are advancing at statistically significant rates of 2.6daysdecade-1 and 2.1daysdecade-1 respectively. Climatic data from seven Namaqualand weather stations, collectively spanning 1959-2018, were interrogated. For the periods spanned by both climate and phenology data, the relationships between the two were explored. Increasing temperatures are driving the calculated advances of the daisy flowering dates at statistically significant rates of change ranging from 0.01 to 0.11days°C-1. The main climate drivers of Namaqualand daisy flowering phenology are winter and spring temperatures, the onset of the winter rainy season during April and May, and total winter precipitation. The rates of advance and climate drivers are broadly consistent with global phenological meta-analyses and records for the Southern Hemisphere. The advances in the timing of Namaqualand daisy flowering will have a significant impact on the tourism sector in the region, as flower viewing tours need to be prearranged months in advance.

Influence of budburst inducers replacing hydrogen cyanamide on phenological parameters of ‘Castel Gala’ apple trees

Hydrogen cyanamide is the main budburst inducer applied in Brazil, even though it is highly toxic to the environment. This fact has triggered the search for alternatives with similar efficiency and lower toxicity. This study aimed at evaluating the efficiency of different budburst inducers by using phenology on the field and by applying the biological method of single bud. The experiment was conducted in an experimental orchard of ‘Castel Gala’ apple trees in both 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 seasons. Seven treatments, divided into three concentrations of Erger® associated with calcium nitrate, three concentrations of garlic extract associated with mineral oil and control (no application), were applied in the first season. The second season consisted of the seven treatments applied in the first season and two treatments of hydrogen cyanamide, at different concentrations, associated with mineral oil. Evaluation was carried out on the field by checking budburst and flowering percentages, fruit set and dates of phenological stages. In the second season, the test of the single bud evaluated percentages of total budburst and mixed buds, average budburst time (ABT) and average time for leaf opening (ATLO). The results show that garlic extract is not efficient inducing budburst in 'Castel Gala' apple trees; while the budburst inducers hydrogen cyanamide 1% + mineral oil 3% and Erger® 7% + calcium nitrate 5% are the best alternative for inducers, being the last main alternative to hydrogen cyanamide in 'Castel Gala' apple trees budburst induction. The biological method of single bud did not show to be a good alternative to evaluate the efficiency of budburst inducers in 'Castel Gala' apple trees. .

New insights into flowering date in Prunus: fine mapping of a major QTL in sweet cherry.

Flowering date is an important trait in Prunus fruit species, especially for their adaptation in a global warming context. Numerous quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been identified and a major one was previously located on LG4. The objectives of this study were to fine-map this QTL in sweet cherry, to identify robust candidate genes by using the new sweet cherry genome sequence of the cultivar “Regina” and to define markers usable in marker-assisted selection (MAS). We performed QTL analyses on two populations derived from crosses using cultivars “Regina” and “Garnet” as parents. The first one (n = 117) was phenotyped over ten years, while the second one (n = 1386) was evaluated during three years. Kompetitive allele specific PCR (KASP) markers located within the QTL region on LG4 were developed and mapped within this region, consisting in the first fine mapping in sweet cherry. The QTL interval was narrowed from 380 kb to 68 kb and candidate genes were identified by using the genome sequence of “Regina”. Their expression was analyzed from bud dormancy period to flowering in cultivars “Regina” and “Garnet”. Several genes, such as PavBOI-E3, PavSR45a and PavSAUR71, were differentially expressed in these two cultivars and could be then considered as promising candidate genes. Two KASP markers were validated using a population derived from a cross between cultivars “Regina” and “Lapins” and two collections, including landraces and modern cultivars. Thanks to the high synteny within the Prunus genus, these results give new insights into the control of flowering date in Prunus species and pave the way for the development of molecular breeding strategies.

Variation in flowering time and flowering date stability within a cultivar of French serradella

Context Opportunity exists to expand serradella (Ornithopus spp.) use onto heavier, duplex soil types in permanent pasture environments of south-eastern Australia. This requires cultivars with appropriate flowering times and flowering-date stability (i.e. flowering at the same date in spring regardless of timing of the autumn break). Aim This work examined evidence of variation in flowering date and flowering-date stability in the NSW southern tablelands for a widely-used French serradella (O. sativus) cv. Margurita. Methods Seed (sourced from a commercial supplier) was sown 21 March 2019 (Canberra, ACT) and 231 individual plants were monitored for time to first flower. A subset of plants exhibiting ‘early’ or ‘late’ flowering were identified and their seeds collected. In 2020, seed from ~15 plants from each selection was sown in Canberra in late March and early May to represent an ‘early’ and a ‘later’ break of season (n = 3). Key results In the early-sown treatment, ‘early-flowering’ selections typically reached the median date of first flower (50%-flowering) from mid- to late August, while ‘late-flowering’ selections reached 50%-flowering early- to mid-September. When sown later, the ‘early-flowering’ selections began flowering from mid- to late September, while the ‘late-flowering’ selections flowered mid-September to early October. The ‘early’ selections exhibited greater flowering-date instability than ‘late’ selections and flowered particularly early when sown early. This indicated diversity within cv. Margurita for flowering-time control (e.g. vernalisation and/or photoperiod requirements). Implications Evaluating cultivars of serradellas for flowering date and flowering date stability in their target environment(s) is essential to ensure cultivars are suitably adapted to these environments.

Influence of the climatic factors on the mass flowering dates of Bulbocodium versicolor (Melanthiaceae) at the south-eastern border of its range

Under conditions of climate change, phenological studies of vegetation are of particular importance. Most of the current research are carried out in Protected Areas (PAs), network of phenological stations, agricultural lands, nurseries, and botanical gardens. Studies based on remote sensing data do not take into account the species diversity of the vegetation cover. This study is aimed to determine regularities of the timing of Bulbocodium versicolor mass flowering at the southeast border of its range. The studied B. versicolor population is located in the vicinity of the city Volgograd, which makes it available for research. At the same time, the B. versicolor population is under constant anthropogenic pressure. Understanding the phenological features of this species and regularities of the timing of mass flowering (the period of highest vulnerability) will allow us to organise the protection of the B. versicolor population during this period. The study is based on data about the beginning of mass flowering dates, obtained during surveys of 2007–2020 with a possible error of 2–7 days, as well as an archive of weather data of the Volgograd weather station. The average start date of mass flowering is 24 March ± 12 days. The range between the earliest and latest dates exceeds a month. We have found a statistically significant correlation between the start date of B. versicolor mass flowering and the date of snow cover destruction, as well as dates of stable transition of the maximum air temperature over 0°C, and the average daily temperature, over 0°C and over 3°C. Over the period 2007–2020, no statistically significant trends were found for either dates of B. versicolor mass flowering or dates of main meteorological phenomena. Almost every year, after the start of B. versicolor mass flowering, frosts occur on the soil and in the air, and snowfalls take place regularly. This may be one of the factors which cause a lower seed regeneration in this B. versicolor population compared to the ones located northward, since the temperature drop during the flowering period contributes to the depressive state of the B. versicolor population.

Application of ESCO phytosystem based on narrow-band light-emitting diodes for growing cucumbers under photoculture conditions

The article deals with the study of photomorphogenesis of different cucumber varieties under light culture conditions. Studies were carried out under laboratory conditions using an experimental phytosystem ESCO based on narrow-band light-emitting diodes, which is equipped with a microcontroller. The microcontroller controls the supplementary light modes. Studies were conducted to develop recommendations for selecting and controlling the spectral composition of light optimal for the life cycle of plants. The aim of our research is to study photomorphogenesis of different cucumber varieties under light-culture conditions using an experimental ESCO phytosystem based on narrow-band light-emitting diodes equipped with a microcontroller that controls the supplementary light modes. Four cucumber hybrids were used to test the ESCO phytosystem. Phytolamps were placed at the height of 1 m in the beginning, then at the height of 1.2 m. Every day we recorded the growth of shoot length, establishment of generative organs (flowers), we recorded the date of flowering and fruit formation. Conditions of humidity, nutrient and air regimes corresponded to biological requirements of growth and development of cucumber plants. Studies have shown that laying of generative organs of cucumber with additional lighting with narrow-band light emitting diodes is good. Female flowers appeared 7-14 days earlier in BV700+RV350+ BF350+FRF350 regime than in plants grown under natural light. The RV light regime had a significant effect on the increase in plant height. Determination of chlorophyll content showed its optimal amount and depended on the varietal characteristics of plants. The best supplementary light mode was BV700+RV350+ BF350+FRF350 during the cultivation of seedlings of different cucumber hybrids. Mode change all to 500 after planting in the ground.

Linear Feature-Based Triangulation for Large-Scale Orthophoto Generation Over Mechanized Agricultural Fields

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with imaging and ranging sensors have become an effective remote sensing data acquisition tool for digital agriculture. Among potential products derived from UAVs, high-resolution orthophotos play an important role in several phenotyping activities, such as canopy cover estimation and flowering date identification. Current structure from motion (SfM) tools for image-based 3-D reconstruction and orthophoto generation cannot perform well when working with large-scale imagery over mechanized agricultural fields. This failure is mainly due to their inability to identify enough conjugate points among overlapping images captured at low altitudes. This study addresses such limitation through a new strategy that uses plant row segments as linear features in the triangulation process. The linear features are derived in two steps. First, an automated approach is implemented to extract plant row segments from the LiDAR data which are then back-projected to the imagery using available trajectory and system calibration parameters. In the second step, a machine-assisted strategy is used to adjust the line segments in image space for deriving accurate linear features. In the proposed framework, the triangulation process is conducted by investigating two mathematical models—referred to as object-space and image-space coplanarity constraints—for incorporating linear features in the bundle adjustment (BA). The orthophoto is generated using the refined trajectory and system calibration parameters derived from the BA process. Several experimental results over an agricultural filed show that the proposed framework outperforms commonly used SfM tools, e.g., Pix4D Mapper Pro and Agisoft Metashape in terms of generating orthophotos with high visual quality and geolocation accuracy. Also, results indicate that the object-space coplanarity constraint is more robust against potential noise in line measurements when compared to the image-space coplanarity model. However, both models lead to high absolute accuracy in the range of ±2–4 cm when the noise level in the image measurements of points along the line is reasonable, i.e., ~5–10 pixels.

Effect of High Temperature during Intermittent Low-temperature Storage of Nursery Plants on Flowering Dates of Strawberry

Effect of High Temperature during Intermittent Low-temperature Storage of Nursery Plants on Flowering Dates of Strawberry

Morphological Characterization and Phenological Modeling of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Jatropha platyphylla&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; (Euphorbiaceae) Muell. Arg. Genotypes

Morphological characterization and phenological modeling were carried out on genotypes of Jatropha platyphylla collected from the states of Sinaloa and Durango, Mexico. The morphological characterization evidenced the existence of monoecious plants, finding individuals with male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Fruit with four seeds was also found. The phenological study was divided into two phases and calculated in thermal requirement (°D): Vegetative [seedtime (0), germination (24), emergence (98), cotyledons (87), second (302) and fourth (524) true leaves, end of vegetative growth (302)] and reproductive [flowering (303), fructification (342), maturation (126), defoliation and senescence (450)]. The thermal constant (2558) was similar in all eight genotypes. The phenological stages and the accumulated degree days were adjusted with a third-degree polynomial (Stage = -0.0041x3 + 0.7446x2 - 8.6808x + 6.2448) (R2 = 0.99%) stage. The development of phenological models facilitates the prediction of the flowering date for the selection of varieties with high oil and protein content.

Flowering Date1, a major photoperiod sensitivity gene in adzuki bean, is a soybean floral repressor E1 ortholog.

Adzuki bean is an important legume crop originating in temperate regions, with photoperiod in sensitivity being a key factor in its latitudinal adaptation. The Flowering Date1 (FD1) gene has a large effect on the photoperiodic response of flowering time, but the molecular basis for the effect of this locus is undetermined. The present study delimited the FD1 locus to a 17.1 kb sequence, containing a single gene, an E1 ortholog (VaE1). A comparison between Vigna angularis ‘Shumari’ (photoperiod insensitive) and ‘Acc2265’ (photoperiod sensitive) identified 29 insertions/deletions and 178 SNPs upstream of VaE1 in the FD1 locus. VaE1 expression in ‘Acc2265’ was greater under long-day than short-day conditions, whereas VaE1 expression in ‘Shumari’ was lower regardless of day length. These findings suggested that responsible gene of FD1 is a VaE1, which acts as a floral repressor by being upregulated in response to long-day conditions. The inability to upregulate VaE1 under long-day conditions was linked to its ability to flower under these conditions. These results provide greater understanding of the molecular control of a flowering date and clues enabling the breeding of adzuki bean at higher latitudes.

Effect of Grafting on Growth and Shelf Life of Tomatoes (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Solanum lycopersicum&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; L.) Grafted on Two Local &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Solanum&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Species

The Rio Grande variety of tomato is widely grown because of its high productivity during the cold and dry seasons, and its resistance to Verticillium wilt (caused by Fusarium oxysporium) and to stem canker (Alternaria). Grafting tomato onto compatible rootstocks resistant to these diseases offers a better potential to overcome soil-borne diseases, abiotic stresses, improve growth, yield and fruit quality. However, in Cameroon, there is little or no information on grafting between Rio Grande tomato and selected eggplant rootstocks. The objectives of this study were: 1) To determine the compatibility between Rio tomato grafting and a popular local eggplant (Nkeya) rootstock; 2) To verify the effect of grafting on flowering time; 3) To evaluate the effect of eggplant rootstocks on growth, fruit shelf life and fruit quality of Rio tomatoes. The trial was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications. Rio Grande (To) was the ungrafted treatment used as a control. To/Ko, To/To and To/Nk were the grafted treatments eventually transplanted to the field. Growth data were subjected to analysis of variance using SPSS software. Descriptive analyses were performed for the other parameters. The results revealed that, 1) The cleft grafting method used was successful with success rate varying between 90 and 100%; 2) Grafting influenced flowering date (DAT, p = 0.05) as well as tomato growth parameters including stem height (H, 1.49 × 10-10 p 0.00014) and collar diameter (SD, 4 × 10-14 p 0.009). The To/To treatment was significantly different from the ungrafted cultivar To, which had no significant difference in stem diameter. A significant difference in plant height was also observed between the ungrafted treatment To and the To/Ko and To/Nk treatments. In addition, only the collar diameter of To/Nk was different from To. Also, there was no significant difference between To/To and To, but a significant difference between To/Ko and To/Nk compared to To. Conversely, grafting improved the lifespan of To/Ko. Ultimately, the grafting method used was successful, but further studies are needed to overcome the problem of graft incompatibility in order to improve the agronomic performance of grafted plants.

Weather Patterns Associated with DON Levels in Norwegian Spring Oat Grain: A Functional Data Approach.

Fusarium graminearum is regarded as the main deoxynivalenol (DON) producer in Norwegian oats, and high levels of DON are occasionally recorded in oat grains. Weather conditions in the period around flowering are reported to have a high impact on the development of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and DON in cereal grains. Thus, it would be advantageous if the risk of DON contamination of oat grains could be predicted based on weather data. We conducted a functional data analysis of weather-based time series data linked to DON content in order to identify weather patterns associated with increased DON levels. Since flowering date was not recorded in our dataset, a mathematical model was developed to predict phenological growth stages in Norwegian spring oats. Through functional data analysis, weather patterns associated with DON content in the harvested grain were revealed mainly from about three weeks pre-flowering onwards. Oat fields with elevated DON levels generally had warmer weather around sowing, and lower temperatures and higher relative humidity or rain prior to flowering onwards, compared to fields with low DON levels. Our results are in line with results from similar studies presented for FHB epidemics in wheat. Functional data analysis was found to be a useful tool to reveal weather patterns of importance for DON development in oats.