Aviary Research Articles

Phylogenetic Patterns in Mouth Posture and Echolocation Emission Behavior of Phyllostomid Bats

While phyllostomid bats show an impressive range of feeding habits, most of them emit highly similar echolocation calls. Due to the presence of an often prominent noseleaf, it has long been assumed that all phyllostomids emit echolocation calls exclusively through the nostrils rather than through the mouth. However, photo evidence documents also phyllostomid bats flying with an opened mouth. We hypothesized that all phyllostomid species emit echolocation calls only through the nostrils and therefore fly consistently with a closed mouth, and that observations of an open mouth should be a rare and random behavior among individuals and species. Using a high-speed camera and standardized conditions in a flight cage, we screened 40 phyllostomid species. Behavior varied distinctly among the species and mouth posture shows a significant phylogenetic signal. Bats of the frugivorous subfamilies Rhinophyllinae and Carolliinae, the nectarivorous subfamilies Glossophaginae and Lonchophyllinae, and the sanguivorous subfamily Desmodontinae all flew consistently with open mouths. So did the animalivorous subfamilies Glyphonycterinae, Micronycterinae and Phyllostominae, with the notable exception of species in the omnivorous genus Phyllostomus, which consistently flew with mouths closed. Bats from the frugivorous subfamily Stenodermatinae also flew exclusively with closed mouths with the single exception of the genus Sturnira, which is the sister clade to all other stenodermatine species. Further, head position angles differed significantly between bats echolocating with their mouth closed and those echolocating with their mouths opened, with closed-mouth phyllostomids pointing only the nostrils in the direction of flight and open-mouth phyllostomids pointing both the nostrils and mouth gape in the direction of flight. Ancestral trait reconstruction showed that the open mouth mode is the ancestral state within the Phyllostomidae. Based on the observed behavioral differences, we suggest that phyllostomid bats are not all nasal emitters as previously thought and discuss possible reasons. Further experiments, such as selectively obstructing sound emission through nostrils or mouth, respectively, will be necessary to clarify the actual source, plasticity and ecological relevance of sound emission of phyllostomid bats flying with their mouths open.

Phylogenetic Patterns in Mouth Posture and Echolocation Emission Behavior of Phyllostomid Bats

While phyllostomid bats show an impressive range of feeding habits, most of them emit highly similar echolocation calls. Due to the presence of an often prominent noseleaf, it has long been assumed that all phyllostomids emit echolocation calls exclusively through the nostrils rather than through the mouth. However, photo evidence documents also phyllostomid bats flying with an opened mouth. We hypothesized that all phyllostomid species emit echolocation calls only through the nostrils and therefore fly consistently with a closed mouth, and that observations of an open mouth should be a rare and random behavior among individuals and species. Using a high-speed camera and standardized conditions in a flight cage, we screened 40 phyllostomid species. Behavior varied distinctly among the species and mouth posture shows a significant phylogenetic signal. Bats of the frugivorous subfamilies Rhinophyllinae and Carolliinae, the nectarivorous subfamilies Glossophaginae and Lonchophyllinae, and the sanguivorous subfamily Desmodontinae all flew consistently with open mouths. So did the animalivorous subfamilies Glyphonycterinae, Micronycterinae and Phyllostominae, with the notable exception of species in the omnivorous genus Phyllostomus, which consistently flew with mouths closed. Bats from the frugivorous subfamily Stenodermatinae also flew exclusively with closed mouths with the single exception of the genus Sturnira, which is the sister clade to all other stenodermatine species. Further, head position angles differed significantly between bats echolocating with their mouth closed and those echolocating with their mouths opened, with closed-mouth phyllostomids pointing only the nostrils in the direction of flight and open-mouth phyllostomids pointing both the nostrils and mouth gape in the direction of flight. Ancestral trait reconstruction showed that the open mouth mode is the ancestral state within the Phyllostomidae. Based on the observed behavioral differences, we suggest that phyllostomid bats are not all nasal emitters as previously thought and discuss possible reasons. Further experiments, such as selectively obstructing sound emission through nostrils or mouth, respectively, will be necessary to clarify the actual source, plasticity and ecological relevance of sound emission of phyllostomid bats flying with their mouths open.

Retrospective study on admission trends of Californian hummingbirds found in urban habitats (1991-2016).

BackgroundHummingbirds are frequently presented to California wildlife rehabilitation centers for medical care, accounting for approximately 5% of overall admissions. Age, sex, and reason for admission could impact hummingbird survivability, therefore identification of these factors could help maximize rehabilitation efforts.MethodsMixed-effects logistic regression models were used to identify specific threats to the survival of 6908 hummingbirds (1645 nestlings and 5263 non-nestlings) consisting of five species (Calypte anna, Calypte costa, Selasphorus rufus, Selasphorus sasin, Archilochus alexandri), found in urban settings, and admitted to California wildlife rehabilitation centers over 26 years.ResultsIn total, 36% of birds survived and were transferred to flight cage facilities for further rehabilitation and/or release. Nestlings were more likely to be transferred and/or released compared to adult hummingbirds. After accounting for age, birds rescued in spring and summer were twice as likely to be released compared to birds rescued in the fall. A high number of nestlings were presented to the rehabilitation centers during spring, which coincides with the nesting season for hummingbirds in California, with the lowest number of nestlings presented in fall. Reasons for presentation to rehabilitation centers included several anthropogenic factors such as window collisions (9.6%) and interactions with domesticated animals (12.9%). Survival odds were lower if a hummingbird was rescued in a “torpor-like state” and were higher if rescued for “nest-related” reasons. Evaluation of treatment regimens administered at wildlife rehabilitation centers identified supportive care, including providing commercial nutrient-rich nectar plus solution, to significantly increase hummingbird survivability.DiscussionOur results provide evidence of threats to hummingbirds in urban habitats, based on reasons for rescue and presentation to rehabilitation centers. Reasons for hummingbird admissions to three California wildlife rehabilitation centers were anthropogenic in nature (i.e., being associated with domestic animals, window collisions, and found inside a man-made structure) and constituted 25% of total admissions. There was a clear indication that supportive care, such as feeding a commercial nectar solution, and medical treatment significantly increased the odds of survival for rescued hummingbirds.

Using mounting, orientation, and design to improve bat box thermodynamics in a northern temperate environment

Wildlife managers design artificial structures, such as bird houses and bat boxes, to provide alternative nesting and roosting sites that aid wildlife conservation. However, artificial structures for wildlife may not be equally efficient at all sites due to varying climate or habitat characteristics influencing thermal properties. For example, bat boxes are a popular measure employed to provide compensatory or supplementary roost sites for bats and educate the public. Yet, bat boxes are often thermally unstable or too cold to fulfill reproductive females needs in northern temperate environments. To help improve the thermodynamics of bat boxes, we tested the effect of (1) three mountings, (2) four orientations, and (3) twelve bat box designs on the internal temperature of bat boxes. We recorded temperatures in bat boxes across a climate gradient at seven sites in Quebec, Canada. Bat boxes mounted on buildings had warmer microclimates at night than those on poles and those facing east warmed sooner in the morning than those facing west or south. Our best new model based on passive solar architecture (Ncube PH1) increased the time in the optimal temperature range (22–40 °C) of targeted species by up to 13% compared to the most commonly used model (Classic 4-chamber) when mounted on a building with an east orientation (other designs presented in the Supplementary Information). Based on bioenergetic models, we estimated that bats saved up to 8% of their daily energy using the Ncube PH1 compared to the Classic 4-chamber when mounted on a building with an east orientation. We demonstrate that the use of energy-saving concepts from architecture can improve the thermal performance of bat boxes and potentially other wildlife structures as well.

Spatial Bet Hedging in Sand Fly Oviposition: Factors Affecting Skip Oviposition in Phlebotomus papatasi Sand Flies.

Skip oviposition is considered as an example of spatial bet hedging and involves a tradeoff between the benefit of reducing the risk of complete reproductive failure due to stochastic loss of a breeding site and the energetic and mortality costs associated with dispersal across several oviposition sites. Skip oviposition has been studied extensively for container-breeding mosquitoes but has never been studied with sand flies. By conducting a series of bioassays using solitary gravid females exposed to varying numbers of oviposition sites and to oviposition sites of variable quality at small (oviposition jar) and medium (free-flight cage) scales, we showed that sand flies exhibited skip oviposit at both scales. Specifically, with low-quality oviposition sites, females spread their eggs across several oviposition sites with total egg clutch size remaining constant and number of eggs per oviposition site decreasing with increasing number of oviposition sites. With variable quality sites, sand flies biased their oviposition to sites containing increasing levels of organic matter (OM), but also laid eggs in poor-quality sites; a behavior consistent with spatial bet hedging. We also demonstrated that the presence of OM stimulated larger egg clutch size and increased percent skip oviposition. Skip oviposition was less frequent at the free flight cage scale. But, at this scale, females were shown to be stimulated to lay more eggs when in the presence of other females than when alone.

Biomonitoring of Toxic Metals in Feathers of Birds from North-Eastern Pakistan

The current study was designed to determine the concentrations of toxic metals (Ni, Pb and Cr) in feathers of birds collected from four regions of NE Pakistan. Feather samples of birds (House Crow, Common Myna and House Sparrow) were collected from different areas. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to determine the concentration of metals in feathers. Analysis of the data revealed that concentrations of Pb and Cr were significantly different (p < 0.05) among bird species, whereas no difference (p > 0.05) was detected among bird species (house crow, common myna and house sparrow) for Ni. A significant difference was found for the concentration of Pb and Ni in all the four studied regions. Whereas, non-significant difference was found in all the studied regions for the concentrating of Cr. It was revealed that there is significant rising concentration of metals (Pb, Cr) in feathers of birds in Azad Kashmir.

Sulfoxaflor insecticide and azoxystrobin fungicide have no major impact on honeybees in a realistic-exposure semi-field experiment.

Exposure to pesticides is considered a major threat to bees and several neonicotinoid insecticides were recently banned in cropland within the European Union in light of evidence of their potential detrimental effects. Nonetheless, bees remain exposed to many pesticides whose effects are poorly understood. Recent evidence suggests that one of the most prominent replacements of the banned neonicotinoids - the insecticide sulfoxaflor - harms bees and that fungicides may have been overlooked as a driver of bee declines. Realistic-exposure studies are, however, lacking. Here, we assess the impact of the insecticide Closer (active ingredient: sulfoxaflor) and the widely used fungicide Amistar (a.i.: azoxystrobin) on honeybees in a semi-field study (10 flight cages containing a honeybee colony, for each of three treatments: Closer, Amistar, control). The products were applied according to label instructions either before (Closer) or during (Amistar) the bloom of purple tansy. We found no significant effects of Closer or Amistar on honeybee colony development or foraging activity. Our study suggests that these pesticides pose no notable risk to honeybees when applied in isolation, following stringent label instructions. The findings on Closer indicate that a safety-period of 5-6days between application and bloom, which is only prescribed in a few EU member states, may prevent its impacts on honeybees. However, to conclude whether Closer and Amistar can safely be applied, further realistic-exposure studies should examine their effects in combination with other chemical or biological stressors on various pollinator species.

Behavioural and antennal responses of Aedes aegypti (l.) (Diptera: Culicidae) gravid females to chemical cues from conspecific larvae.

Mass trapping of gravid females represents one promising strategy for the development of sustainable tools against Aedes aegypti. However, this technique requires the development of effective odorant lures that can compete with natural breeding sites. The presence of conspecific larvae has been shown to stimulate oviposition. Hence, we evaluated the role of four major molecules previously identified from Ae. aegypti larvae (isovaleric, myristoleic, myristic [i.e. tetradecanoic], and pentadecanoic acids) on the oviposition of conspecific females, as well as their olfactory perception to evaluate their range of detection. Using flight cage assays, the preference of gravid females to oviposit in water that previously contained larvae (LHW) or containing the four larval compounds was evaluated. Then, compounds and doses inducing the highest stimulation were challenged for their efficacy against LHW. Only isovaleric acid elicited antennal response, suggesting that the other compounds may act as taste cues. Pentadecanoic acid induced significant oviposition stimulation, especially when dosed at 10 ppm. Myristoleic acid and isovaleric acid deterred oviposition at 10 and 100 ppm, while no effect on oviposition was observed with myristic acid irrespectively of the dose tested. When the four compounds were pooled to mimic larvae's chemical signature, they favored oviposition at 1 ppm but negatively affected egg-laying at higher concentrations. When properly dosed, pentadecanoic acid and the blend of compounds may be promising lures for ovitraps as they could compete with LHW. Due to their low volatility, their effect should be further evaluated under field conditions, in addition with long-range attractants for developing effective tools against gravid females.

The Sustainability of Keeping Birds as Pets: Should Any Be Kept?

Simple SummaryThe trade in birds for pet trade is harming wild bird populations and bird welfare. Inadequate housing of many pet birds results in stereotypies and other indicators of poor welfare in the birds that are currently widespread. Some pet birds were taken from the wild or bred in poor conditions, while others had nutritional, health, and behavioral problems resulting from inadequate living conditions and incorrect husbandry by the bird owners. As a consequence, it is not ethically right to keep the majority of the birds that are at present kept as pets. If birds are to be continued as a companion animal for people, then more effort should be made by pet shop owners and veterinarians to supply literature to prospective owners highlighting not only the proper care for the species of bird but also its needs and requirements, so that bird owners can do their utmost to meet them. Owners do not comply with laws requiring duty of care, unless they obtain and act on such information and also have knowledge of how to provide good nutrition and minimize the risk of disease. New laws are needed to prohibit taking birds from the wild and keeping birds in conditions that do not meet their needs.We describe a wide range of unethical and unsustainable practices inherent to the trading and keeping of pet birds. At present, biodiversity and wild bird populations are being greatly harmed and many individual birds have poor welfare. Wild-caught birds should not be sold to the public as pets, or to breeding establishments for several reasons, including because 75–90% of wild-caught birds die before the point of sale and taking birds from the wild has negative effects on biodiversity. The housing provided for pet birds should meet the needs of birds of that species and allow good welfare, for example there should be no small cages but aviaries with space for each bird to exercise adequately, and social birds should be kept in social groups. At present, inadequate housing of many pet birds results in stereotypies and other indicators of poor welfare in birds. Owners should have knowledge of how to provide good nutrition and minimize the risk of disease. Unless these changes are made, keeping birds as pets should not be permitted. New laws are needed to prohibit taking birds from the wild and ensure captive pet birds in conditions that do meet their needs.

Report ofectoparasites in captive birdsand theircontrol

Mexico is found in the top 10 countries worldwide that export wild birds. While there is an increasing demand for owning birds among Mexicans, there is insufficient information on how to appropriately care for them. Mexico is home to approximately 1,060 ofthe world’s bird species, roughly 10%. Removal of these birds from their natural habitat for commercial purposes without regulation is a practice widely undertaken in the country. As a result of he lack of knowledge and irresponsible practices while keeping these birds in captivity, their well-being is not maintained. They therefore become susceptible to the proliferation of external arthropod parasites, called ectoparasites. Ectoparasites can cause disease in humans, domestic and wild animals by acting as a reservoir for important pathogens that can transmit zoonotic infections. In this work, clinical cases of domestic birds obtained from Veterinarians of the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara that were infected by ectoparasites were reviewed. In all the cases analyzed, the presence of the ectoparasite Knemidokoptesspp., cause of scabies, was found. The most commonly used treatment for elimination ofparasitosis is topical Ivermectin, and the main risk factor identified is the lack of cleanliness in bird housing. A timely treatment for these parasitic infections is able to prevent the death of these birds. Additionally, a proper diet and carrying out a necessary prophylactic method for each species will improve their quality of life in captivity.

Drought-induced reduction in flower size and abundance correlates with reduced flower visits by bumble bees.

Reduced water availability can cause physiological stress in plants that affects floral development leading to changes in floral morphology and traits that mediate interactions with pollinators. As pollinators can detect small changes in trait expressions, drought-induced changes in floral traits could affect pollinator visitations. However, the linkage between changes in floral traits and pollinator visitations under drought conditions is not well explored. We, therefore, tested whether drought-induced changes in floral morphology and abundance of flowers are linked to changes in pollinator visitations. We conducted flight cage experiments with a radio frequency identification system for automated visitation recordings with bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) and common charlock (Sinapis arvensis) as the model system. In total, we recorded interactions for 31 foraging bumble bees and 6569 flower visitations. We found that decreasing soil moisture content correlated with decreasing size of all measured morphological traits except stamen length and nectar tube width. The reductions in floral size, petal width and length, nectar tube depth and number of flowers resulted in decreasing visitation rates by bumble bees. These decreasing visitations under lower soil moisture availability might be explained by lower numbers of flowers and thus a reduced attractiveness and/or by increased difficulties experienced by bumble bees in handling smaller flowers. Whether these effects act additively or synergistically on pollinator behaviour and whether this leads to changes in pollen transfer and to different selectionp ressures require further investigation.

Kuş Evleri ve Seramik Sanatçılarından Örnekler

Anadolu’da eski bir gelenek olan kuş evlerinin geçmişi Osmanlı mimarisinde görülen örneklere dayanmaktadır. Genellikle saray, cami, ev, han, medrese, kütüphane ve türbe gibi tuğla ve taş malzeme üzerine inşa edilen kuş evleri, mimari bir yapı kadar emek gerektiren kendine özgü yapılardır. Yapım aşamasındaki zorluklar sebebi ile günümüzde yapılan mimari eserlerde kuş evlerinin üretiminin yok olmaya yüz tuttuğu, var olanlarının ise korunamadığı görülmektedir. Günümüzde farklı malzemeler kullanılarak yapılan kuş evlerinin birçoğu basit formlardan oluşmakta ve mimari yapıların üzerlerine inşa edilmekteyken bazı kuş evleri yapıdan bağımsız olarak açık alanlarda sergilenmektedir. Bu çalışma, geçmişten günümüze varlıklarını sürdüren kuş evlerini konu almaktadır. Bu kapsamda öncelikle kuş evleri hakkında literatüre taraması yapılmıştır. Seramik malzeme kullanarak kuşevleri çalışan günümüz yerli ve yabancı seramik sanatçıların çalışmaları görsel açıdan incelenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda kuşevi çalışan seramik sanatçıları alfabetik sıra ile anlatılmıştır. Buna göre yurt içinden üç (Cihat Burak, Deniz Onur Erman, Mezahir Ertuğ Avşar), yurt dışından beş (Douglas Fey, Jim Schatz, Joop Van Ulden, Michael Mcdowell, Stanley Cleve Bi Bitters) seramik sanatçısının yaptığı çalışmalar görselleri ile birlikte sunulmuştur. Bununla birlikte, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi kampüs alanı içine çalışılan, seramik kuş evleri yapım, uygulama süreçleri aşamalı olarak anlatılmıştır.

Bird Health, Housing and Management Routines on Swedish Organic Broiler Chicken Farms.

Simple SummaryKnowledge of bird welfare and management on Swedish organic broiler farms is limited, since the number of farms began to increase only recently when two slower-growing hybrids became commercially available in Sweden. The aim of the study was to obtain information about chicken health and other welfare aspects, along with details of housing and management routines, in order to increase the knowledge and describe the current situation of these farms. Clinical examinations revealed no severe remarks, however minor to moderate plumage dirtiness, food pad dermatitis and hock burns were found in 47%, 21% and 13% of the birds, respectively. Higher body weights were significantly correlated to an increased prevalence of hock burns and dirty plumages. Although no severe walking impairments were observed, minor to moderate gait abnormalities were seen in almost two-thirds of all birds assessed. Gait in chickens assessed outdoors was significantly better than in those observed indoors. Flock body weight uniformity was low in all flocks. The study provides new knowledge of two slower-growing hybrids on Swedish organic farms. Further research should be focused on investigating other important aspects related to bird welfare, such as the low flock body weight uniformity and the high mortality rates observed.Slower-growing broilers on organic farms have replaced fast-growing hybrids to increase bird welfare. Due to limited knowledge of broiler welfare and management on organic farms in Sweden, the study aim was to gather information regarding health, housing and management routines, in order to describe the current situation on these. Farm visits performed in 2018 included 8 out of 12 established organic farms, on which either Rowan Ranger or HubbardJA57/HubbardJA87 were reared. Chickens in the observed flocks were 55 ± 6 (44–62) days of age. Observations included farmer interviews, indoor environment assessments, clinical examinations and gait scoring. Clinical examinations revealed no severe remarks, however minor to moderate plumage dirtiness, food pad dermatitis and hock burns were found in 47%, 21% and 13% of the birds, respectively. Although no severe walking impairments were observed, minor to moderate gait abnormalities were seen in two-thirds of the birds. Gait in birds assessed outdoors was significantly better than in birds observed indoors. Body weight uniformity was low in all flocks. This study provides increased knowledge of certain chicken health and welfare aspects, housing and management on Swedish organic farms. Future research should further investigate important aspects related to bird welfare, such as the high mortality rates observed.

Isolation and characterization of low pathogenic H7N7 avian influenza virus from a red-crowned crane in a zoo in South Korea

BackgroundSouth Korea conducts annual national surveillance programs to detect avian influenza (AI) in domestic poultry, live bird markets, and wild birds. In March 2017, an AIV was isolated from fecal samples in an outdoor aviary flight cage in a zoo in Korea.ResultsNucleotide sequencing identified the isolate as low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) H7N7, and DNA barcoding analysis identified the host species as red-crowned crane. This isolate was designated A/red-crowned crane/Korea/H1026/2017 (H7N7). Genetic analysis and gene constellation analysis revealed that A/red-crowned crane/Korea/H1026/2017 (H7N7) showed high similarity with four H7N7 LPAIVs isolated from wild bird habitats in Seoul and Gyeonggi in early 2017.ConclusionsConsidering the genetic similarity and similar collection dates of the viruses, and the fact that zoo bird cages are vulnerable to AIV, it is likely that fecal contamination from wild birds might have introduced LPAIV H7N7 into the red-crowned crane at the zoo. Therefore, our results emphasize that enhanced biosecurity measures should be employed during the wild bird migration season, and that continued surveillance should be undertaken to prevent potential threats to avian species in zoos and to humans.

Acute contact with imidacloprid in soil affects the nesting and survival success of a solitary wild bee, Osmia lignaria (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae)

We assessed impacts of direct acute contact with imidacloprid-treated soil on nesting behavior and mortality of the blue orchard mason bee (Osmia lignaria Say), which is a native solitary cavity-nesting species that collects mud for nest partitions. Laboratory-reared O. lignaria females were exposed to three concentrations of imidacloprid (0, 50, 390 and 780 ppb), in wet (30% moisture) soil for 20 min and released in large flight cages, where impacts on nesting activity and nest cell production were evaluated. Mortality was tested in another experiment using exposure at the same concentrations with two differing soil moisture levels (20% and 40%). Nesting activity was reduced by 42% for females exposed at 390 ppb and by 66% for females exposed at 780 ppb. Females treated at 780 ppb produced 40% fewer nest cells per day. Sex ratios of F1 generation were skewed toward male in the 50 ppb treatment group with 50% fewer females. The number of cells and pre-pupae per nest, as well as the weight of pre-pupal cocoons did not vary among exposure levels. There were no mortality effects at 20% soil moisture for any level of imidacloprid, but at 40%, mortality of females was >50% at all levels of imidacloprid. These results suggest that acute exposure to imidacloprid residue in soil can have negative impacts on soil-interacting bees, and the effects may be relative to the degree of soil moisture.

Pesticide and resource stressors additively impair wild bee reproduction.

Bees and other beneficial insects experience multiple stressors within agricultural landscapes that act together to impact their health and diminish their ability to deliver the ecosystem services on which human food supplies depend. Disentangling the effects of coupled stressors is a primary challenge for understanding how to promote their populations and ensure robust pollination and other ecosystem services. We used a crossed design to quantify the individual and combined effects of food resource limitation and pesticide exposure on the survival, nesting, and reproduction of the blue orchard bee Osmia lignaria. Nesting females in large flight cages accessed wildflowers at high or low densities, treated with or without the common insecticide, imidacloprid. Pesticides and resource limitation acted additively to dramatically reduce reproduction in free-flying bees. Our results emphasize the importance of considering multiple drivers to inform population persistence, management, and risk assessment for the long-term sustainability of food production and natural ecosystems.

Concentrations and Emissions of Ammonia from Different Laying Hen Production Systems of Conventional Cage, Aviary and Natural Mating Colony Cage in North China Plain

Ammonia (NH3) concentrations in summer were continuously monitored from three typical laying hen houses of CC (conventional cage), AV (aviary), and NM (natural mating colony cage) with manure belt systems in North China Plain to quantify their emission levels, to characterize the diurnal variations, and to investigate the impact of environmental factors. Diurnal profiles were acquired by hourly measurements, and the effect of environmental factors on NH3 emissions was presented by correlation analysis. The results showed that house-level NH3 emissions in summer were the highest in the NM at 27.16 ± 13.12 mg/h·hen, followed by the AV at 4.08 ± 3.23 mg/h·hen and the CC at 3.43 ± 1.46 mg/h·hen within a complete manure removal cycle, which were significantly affected by manure accumulation inside the houses. After manure removal, NH3 concentrations were reduced by 64.29%, 28.57%, and 35.71% in CC, AV, and NM, and consequently their emissions were lowered by 67.12%, 71.36%, and 55.69%, respectively. It was suggested that the manure should not be stored on the belt for more than 4 days in NM. A positive impact of indoor and outdoor temperature and ventilation rate on NH3 emissions from AV and NM were found, while indoor and outdoor relative humidity had a negative effect. However, the above five factors did not significantly affect the emissions from CC.

Pullet Rearing Affects Collisions and Perch Use in Enriched Colony Cage Layer Housing.

Simple SummaryEarly-life experiences for laying hens occur in the pullet rearing environment. Hens reared in aviaries use vertical space more than hens reared in non-enriched cages, but this effect has only been studied up to 23 weeks of age. Additionally, hens reared in aviaries sustain fewer keel bone fractures than those reared in non-enriched cages through the age of 73 weeks. Fractures are associated with hens having collisions with structures in their environment, but the long-term effect of rearing on collisions is not known. Lohmann LSL-Lite hens were reared in either aviaries or non-enriched cages until 19 weeks of age, then moved into enriched colony cages. Video recordings at 21, 35, and 49 weeks of age were used to identify behaviors associated with acceleration events for hens fitted with tri-axial accelerometers, as well as the proportion of birds utilizing elevated perches at two different heights. Our results indicate that hens reared in non-enriched cages experience more collisions than aviary-reared hens. Aviary-reared hens also prefer to utilize a higher perch than the cage-reared hens. These results suggest that rearing has long-term effects on space use and the ease with which hens transition among vertical spaces.Hens reared in aviaries (AVI) as pullets have improved spatial abilities compared to hens reared in non-enriched cages (CON). However, this effect on behavior has been shown only to 23 weeks of age. Lohmann LSL-Lite hens were reared in either CON or AVI until 19 weeks of age and then moved into enriched colony cages (ECC) containing two elevated perches of different heights (n = 6 ECC/treatment). Focal hens (3 per ECC) were fitted with tri-axial accelerometers to record acceleration events at 21, 35, and 49 weeks of age. Video recordings from each age were used to identify behaviors associated with acceleration events as well as the proportion of hens utilizing perches. CON hens experienced more acceleration events (p = 0.008) and more collisions (p = 0.04) than AVI hens during the day at 21 and 35 weeks of age. The total proportion of hens perching at night was similar between treatments across most time points, but fewer CON hens used the high perch compared to AVI hens throughout the study (p = < 0.001). Rearing in aviaries influences hen behavior out to peak lay for collisions and out to mid-lay for perch height preference in ECC.

Ontogeny of an interactive call-and-response system in Spix's disc-winged bats

We investigated the ontogenetic changes of two call types, the inquiry call and the response call, which comprise an interactive communication system in Spix's disc-winged bats, Thyroptera tricolor. We documented structural changes on both inquiry and response calls during ontogeny by recording single individual vocalizations in a flight cage and triggering response calls with playbacks of adult inquiry calls. Most ontogenetic changes in response calls were sex dependent. In addition, individuality was high for both call types across age categories. Despite the observed changes during development, both call types resembled the structure of adult calls from early ontogenetic stages, suggesting little influence of social learning in call development. Finally, we found sex dependent ontogenetic changes and high levels of individuality of calls early in life, which may indicate additional functionality in sex and pup recognition. Overall, the findings bring novel insight into the complex developmental process of the call types comprising the communication systems of Spix's disc-winged bats, and contribute to a better understanding of signal development in complex social communication systems.

Preference swiftlet bird (Aerodramus fuciphagus) nesting at different sites in an effort to increase nest production

Nest sites were used special place of swiftlet bird. Nest of swiftlet bird are usually dificult to reach place. This study want to know the potential for nest sites in a swiftlet bird house. Four types of different nest sites were installed at nesting and roving room, made by wood, bamboo, aluminium, concreate at the swiftlet bird house. And then, the breeding swiftlet birds using the different nest sites type were recorded during the breeding season for finding the effectiveness of four different nest sites type. Nest-site with the different material were installed using materials made of wood, bamboo, aluminium and concrete. The resulats were that 25 % (n=6) for wood material, 41.66% (n=10) for bamboo, 29.66%(n=7) for aluminium and 4.16% (n=1) for concrete From this result, the breeding swiftlet bird showed preference for better better bamboo material for nest-site when there were abundant in nesting room 83%(n=20)