Flax Plants Research Articles

Transcriptomic profiling of susceptible and resistant flax seedlings after Fusarium oxysporum lini infection.

In this study transcriptome was analyzed on two fibrous varieties of flax: the susceptible Regina and the resistant Nike. The experiment was carried out on 2-week-old seedlings, because in this phase of development flax is the most susceptible to infection. We analyzed the whole seedlings, which allowed us to recognize the systemic response of the plants to the infection. We decided to analyze two time points: 24h and 48h, because our goal was to learn the mechanisms activated in the initial stages of infection, these points were selected based on the previous analysis of chitinase gene expression, whose increase in time of Fusarium oxysporum lini infection has been repeatedly confirmed both in the case of flax and other plant species. The results show that although qualitatively the responses of the two varieties are similar, it is the degree of the response that plays the role in the differences of their resistance to F. oxysporum.

Ülkemizde Alternatif Yağ Bitkilerinin Durumu

İçerdikleri primer ve sekonder metabolitler (yağ, protein, karbonhidrat, vitamin, mineral, fenolik ve antioksidan) bakımından zengin olan yağlı tohumlu bitkiler, insan ve hayvan beslenmesinin yanı sıra sanayi sektörü için de çok yönlü kullanım olanağına sahip olan önemli hammadde kaynaklarıdır. Ülkemizde yağlı tohumlu bitkiler arasında ekim alanı, üretim ve yağ tüketimi bakımından ilk sırayı ayçiçeği bitkisi almaktadır. Ayçiçeği bitkisinden sonra pamuk, soya, yer fıstığı, kolza ve aspir gibi bitkiler bu parametrelerde ön sırada yer alan yağ bitkilerindendir. Ancak nüfusun artmasıyla birlikte yağ tüketimi de artmakta, ülkemizde üretilen bitkisel yağ miktarı talebi karşılayamamakta ve bu nedenle yağ açığı oluşmaktadır. Gereksinim duyulan yağ ihtiyacının karşılanması için her yıl bitkisel yağ ithal edilmekte ve döviz kaybına uğranmaktadır. Ülkemizde kişi başına düşen bitkisel yağ tüketiminin gelişmiş ülkelere göre düşük olması da ayrıca dikkat edilmesi gereken hususlardandır. Yağ açığının giderilmesi adına alternatif yağ bitkilerinin araştırılması ve yaygınlaştırılması gerekmektedir. Bu derlemede alternatif yağ bitkileri potansiyeline sahip olan aspir, kolza, susam, ketencik, pelemir, crambe ve keten bitkilerinin dünya ve ülkemiz açısından önemi hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir.

СОЗДАНИЕ ИСХОДНОГО МАТЕРИАЛА ЛЬНА С МАРКЕРНЫМ ПРИЗНАКОМ – ЖЕЛТОЙ ОКРАСКОЙ СЕМЯН

Creation of the initial material of fiber flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) with marker signs is a promising direction of breeding, which determines the efficiency of breeding varieties with improved properties. The purpose of the research was to create initial flax material for obtaining seeds with a marker sign (yellow color) and increased weight. The studies were carried out at the Federal Research Center for Bast Fiber Crops in 2015–2018. In our work, we used flax varieties ‘Smolich’, ‘Antey’, ‘C-108’, as well as forms obtained from these varieties. These varieties were used as control. Nurseries were laid under conditions of a leveled agricultural background. Seeds were sown in a square way (2.5×2.5 cm). The experiments were conducted according to the current methods, including phytopathological testing. Soil – sod-podzolic, medium loamy, cultivated. Selyaninov Hydrothermal Coefficient (HTC) in 2015 was 1.3; in 2016 – 2.2; in 2017 – 1.8; in 2018 – 1.3. During the flax plants selection, we obtained three forms with yellow-colored seeds. Yellow-seeded form No. 1 was valuable from the breeding point of view. It exceeded standard variety ‘Smolich’ in seed weight by 0.8 mg (16.0%), in seed yield – by 0.06 t/ha (9.8%). Form No. 1 belongs to the improved fiber flax line. Form No. 3 had a higher seed mass (5.6 mg) compared to standard variety ‘C-108’. In terms of seed yield and 1000-seed weight, this form exceeded the standard by 0.08 t/ha or 14.8% and 0.49 g or 10.6%, respectively. Form No. 3 is a breeding material for creating varieties of bilateral use. Form No. 2 had signs of the oil flax line. It exceeded standard variety ‘Antey’ in seed yield by 0.18 t/ha (40%); 1000-seed weight – by 0.53 g (11.2%). The created material has a breeding value. It was transferred to the bioresource collection of flax for its replenishment, to the bank of the characteristic collection and was additionally included in the breeding process.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПОТРЕБЛЕНИЯ ОСНОВНЫХ ЭЛЕМЕНТОВ ПИТАНИЯ ЛЬНОМ МАСЛИЧНЫМ В СВЯЗИ С ВНЕСЕНИЕМ УДОБРЕНИЙ

The study of the content and removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium by linseed flax plants of the oilseed variety Severniy showed that more nitrogen and phosphorus accumulated in seeds, and potassium -in straw. The average content levels in seeds were as follow-ing: N -4.79%, P2O5 -0.79%, K2O -1.05% as compared to respective levels in straw: 0.64%, 0.1% and 1.73%. When applying fertilizers, the content of all nutrients in the straw decreases, and in the seeds it mainly remains at the con-trol level. Due to the higher crop yields in all fertilized vari-ants, the removal of phosphorus and potassium exceeds the control; and nitrogen removal –in the variants with a higher rate of nitrogen application. With seeds, an average of 87-87.8% of nitrogen and phosphorus and 37.3% of potassium from the total removal is removed from the field. Increased rate of nitrogen application contributes to greater consumption of not only nitrogen but also phosphorus and potassium. The rates of nitrogen application in the experi-ments do not compensate for its yield removal with seeds; that requires increased nitrogen application against the background of phosphorus-containing fertilizers.

Evaluation of fiber-flaх varieties for resistance to lodging in the early stages of ontogenesis

The article analyzes the literature and presents the results of three-year studies of the problem of susceptibility of fiber - flax to their lodging, which is observed at different stages of ontogenesis. It is shown that the lodging of plants negatively affects the formation of morphological characteristics of flax, and unstable varieties have a lower content of lignin in the stem during intensive growth and budding, which leads to a significant reduction in seed productivity and sowing conditions. It is shown that increasing the resistance to lodging of flax stalks has an independent significance in breeding, but along with this there is an influence not only of soil and climatic conditions of cultivation, but also a contribution to the variability of genetic characteristics of the variety.In the analysis of correlations between economically valuable traits of flax, it was found that resistant to lodging forms with increased stem diameter are prone to late ripening, and in terms of increasing the fiber content for breeding more suitable thin-stemmed forms with reduced lodging resistance. High coefficients of positive correlation (r = 0.74‒0.91) between resistance to lodging and the number of leaves on the stem were determined. But these correlations are not general, and their level depends only on the characteristics of experimental samples. The patent search for methods for assessing resistance to lodging in the early stages of selection, which was conditionally divided into four groups, is analyzed. Weather conditions, materials and research methods are described. In the course of laboratory experiments the analysis of group of morphological signs of plants is carried out: the general height of a plant; length of the root system, the first internode and subcotyledonary knee; mass of the subcotyledonary knee and root system. Studies to determine the resistance to lodging of varieties of fiber-flax with different levels of manifestation of this feature of long flax were conducted on the 20-th day after full germination. Six varieties of long flax of different ecological and geographical origin and different groups of resistance to lodging were used.
 It was found that in flax varieties with different degrees of resistance to lodging in the early stages of ontogenesis changes the manifestation of morphological features in the direction of increasing the length of the first internode and subcotyledonary knee and decreases the overall plant height compared to unstable varieties as a result of response to change. There is no clear pattern between the degree of stability of varieties fiber – flax and the decrease in the mass of the subcotyledonary knee during shading. It is shown that shading of flax plants during research has a negative effect on the length of the root system in the early stages of ontogenesis.

Straw, Seed Yield and Quality of Three Linum usitatissimum L. Cultivars in Relation to Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate and Plant Density

Methodology: Two field experiments were conducted on the Experimental Farm at El-Gemmeiza Research Station, Gharbia Governorate, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt, during two successive winter seasons of 2018-19 and 2019-20.
 Aims: To investigate the effect of three nitrogen fertilizer rates, i.e. 30, 50 and 70 kg N feddan-1 [one feddan (fed) = 4200 m2] and three plant densities, i.e. 1500, 2000 and 2500 seeds m-2 on flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) yield and its quality of three cultivars of flax, i.e. Sakha 3, Giza 11 and Giza 12.
 Results: Results in combined analysis of the two seasons showed that Sakha 3 cultivar significantly produced the maximum total plant height, technical stem length, upper branching zone length, No. of seeds capsule-1, total fiber percentage, fiber yield plant-1, fiber yield fed-1, fiber length and fiber fineness. Meanwhile, the highest No. of basal branches plant-1, straw yield plant-1, straw yield fed-1 and seed oil content were recorded with Giza 12 cultivar. While, Giza 11 cultivar gave the maximum stem diameter, No. of upper branches plant-1, No. of capsules plant-1, No. of seeds plant-1, seed index, seed yield plant-1, seed yield fed-1, harvest index, oil yield plant-1 and oil yield fed-1. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer rates from 30 up to 70 kg N fed-1 caused significant increases in almost straw, fiber, seed and oil yields and its related traits of flax, on the other hand, fiber fineness which significantly decreased with increasing nitrogen rates. Flax plants growing at 1500 seeds m-2 markedly gave the greatest No. of basal branches plant-1, stem diameter, straw yield plant-1, upper branching zone length, No. of upper branches plant-1, No. of capsules plant-1, No. of seeds plant-1, seed yield plant-1, harvest index, oil yield plant-1 and fiber yield plant-1. Meanwhile, the maximum total plant height, technical stem length, straw yield fed-1, seed yield fed-1, oil yield fed-1, total fiber percentage, fiber yield fed-1, fiber length and fiber fineness were obtained from flax planting at 2500 seeds m-2. The maximum fiber yield were recorded from the interactions among treatments Sakha 3 X 70 kg N fed-1, Sakha 3 X 2500 seeds m-2, 70 kg N fed-1 X 2500 seeds m-2 and Sakha 3 X 70 kg N fed-1 X 2500 seeds m-2. Meanwhile, the maximum seed and oil yields fed-1 were recorded from the interactions between treatments Giza 11 X 70 kg N fed-1, Giza 11 X 2500 seeds m-2, 70 kg N fed-1 X 2500 seeds m-2 and Giza 11 X 70 kg N fed-1 X 2500 seeds m-2.
 Generally, it could be concluded that Sakha 3 cultivar under soil fertilized by 70 kg N fed-1 with plant density of 2500 seeds m-2 to maximizing fiber yield fed-1, while Giza 11 cultivar with the same rates of nitrogen and plant density to maximizing seed and oil yields fed-1.

The global status and ecological consequences of cultivation of genetically modified plants

The latest accomplishments in molecular genetics, biochemistry and physiology enabled creation of genetically modified organisms (GMO) with changed properties. A genetically modified organism is an organism whose genetic material has been changed in a way that does not happen in nature by crossbreeding and/or recombining, while genetically modified food is such food that is derived from or that contains the ingredients from genetically modified organisms. The first generation of genetically modified plants is plants tolerant to herbicides and resistant to insects. Genetically modified plants tolerant to herbicides raised interest by various researchers who agree that the only ones who benefit from these plants are farmers, producers of herbicides and seeds, and not the consumers of final products. Today a big number of genetically modified cultivated plants are being created (corn, soya, potato, cotton, rape, tomato, sugar beet, wheat, rice, carnation, pumpkin, tobacco, chicory, flax, melon, sugar cane, papaya and other plants. Only 4 agricultural plants are cultivated on large surfaces: soya, corn, cotton and rape. Since the very beginning of cultivation of genetically modified plants and production of food from genetically modified organisms, scientific and other debates have been going on regarding the safety of use, health-related consequences for the people and the environment and the necessity of marking the food obtained from genetically modified organisms. The risks related to cultivation and the use of food from genetically modified organisms are not yet fully known or clarified in detail. The main risks common for all genetically modified organisms relate to the fact that the process of their formation is accompanied with the mutation by inserting the genes homologous and heterologous evolution organisms which creates a possibility for genome changes to continue later during the period of commercial use. Such occurrences may cause changes both to the environment and the living organisms. Transfer of genes from cultivated plants to wild relatives is an already present problem. Only 11 of 60 cultivated varieties of plants in the world do not have wild relatives, while for 12 of 13 leading cultivated plant varieties natural hybridization with wild relatives has been proved. This paper discusses the various problems that exist in the creation and cultivation of genetically modified plants resistant to herbicide. The basic genetic modification of plants resistant to the most important herbicides is described. The advantages, such as easier and cheaper weed control, more effective weed control that cannot be effectively suppressed with herbicides in conventional production, greater flexibility in the application of herbicides, the ability to suppress parasitic weeds, less risk the environment and the possibility of alternative production systems, that evolves from the cultivation of genetically modified plants resistant to herbicides are also pointed out. In this paper some of the risks related to the use of genetically modified crops resistant to herbicides are discussed: the emergence of applied gene mutation,which creates opportunities to change the genome of teaching and later, an additional problem substances and preparations which are standard throughout the process of genetic transformation, gene transfer to wild relatives and weeds, genetically modified plants resistant to herbicide as wild plants in the following crops, increasing the risk of damage to non-target plants herbicide broad spectrum of activity, the potential impact on biodiversity and changes of weed flora.

Bacterial inoculation positively affects the quality and quantity of flax under deficit irrigation regimes.

The present research was conducted to investigate the effect of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and deficit irrigation on quality and quantity of flax under field and pot conditions to determine bacterial efficiency and to decrease water deficit effects. Initially, in vitro experiments were performed to determine the growth-promoting characteristics of bacteria. Then in the field, the effects of bacterial inoculation (control, Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum lipoferum, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus sp. strain1 and Pseudomonas putida) on flax traits were evaluated at different irrigation levels (100, 75 and 50% crop water requirement). Bacterial treatments in the pot experiment were selected based on the field experiment results. The irrigation regimes in the pot and field experiments were the same and bacterial treatments included single, doublet and triplet applications of the bacteria. All the bacterial strains could solubilize phosphate, produce ammonia (except for Bacillus sp. strain1), indole acetic acid and siderophore (except P. putida). Field results indicated that the bacteria significantly mitigated the effects of water deficit. Compared with control plants, bacterial treatments increased the oil, linolenic acid, protein and sulphur content; the number of shoots and capsules; and the harvest index in the flax plants. Pot experimental results revealed that the combined inoculations were more effective than single inoculum treatments. Bacterial inoculation alleviates deficit irrigation effects in flax plants. The effectiveness of applying A. chroococcum, B. amyloliquefaciens and Bacillus sp. strain1 was confirmed, especially as a combination to protect flax against water deficit and to improve its nutritional quality and growth.

Seed Yield and Quality Traits of Some Flax Cultivars as Influenced by Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates and Plant Density

Two field experiments were conducted on the Experimental Farm at El-Gemmeiza Research Station, Gharbia Governorate, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt, during two successive winter seasons of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 to investigate the effect of three nitrogen fertilizer rates (30, 50 and 70 kg N/fed) and three plant densities (1500, 2000 and 2500 seeds/m2) on seed and oil yield and its related traits of three flax cultivars (Sakha 3 Giza 11 and Giza 12). The experimental design was laid out using split-split plot design in four replications. Flax cultivars were distributed in the main plots, whereas nitrogen fertilizer rates were arranged at random in sub-plots and plant densities treatments were assigned at random in sub-sub plots. The sub-sub plot area was 9 m2. Giza 11 cultivar significantly recorded the maximum mean values in No. of upper branches/plant, No. of capsules/plant, No. of seeds/plant, seed index, seed yield/plant, seed yield/fed, harvest index, oil yield/plant and oil yield/fed in two seasons. Meanwhile, the maximum mean values of seed oil content in both seasons were obtained from Giza 12 cultivar. While, flax cultivar of Sakha 3 significantly gave the maximum upper branching zone length and No. of seeds/capsule in both seasons. All seed and oil yield and its related traits of flax were significantly increased with increasing nitrogen fertilizer rates from 30 to 50 and 70 kg N/fed under study in two seasons. Flax plants growing at lowest plant density (1500 seeds/m2) markedly gave the greatest mean values of upper branching zone length, No. of upper branches/plant, No. of capsules/plant, No. of seeds/plant, seed yield/plant, harvest index and oil yield/plant in both seasons. Meanwhile, the maximum mean values of seed yield/fed and oil yield/fed which were obtained from flax planting at highest plant density (2500 seeds/m2) in both seasons. The first order interactions between treatments Giza 11 X 70 kg N/fed, Giza 11 X 1500 seeds/m2 and 70 kg N/fed X 1500 seeds/m2 as well as the second order interaction between treatments Giza 11 X 70 kg N/fed X 1500 seeds/m2 were significantly recorded the greatest seed and oil yield of individual plants as compared with the others interactions in both seasons. While, the maximum mean values of seed and oil yield/fed were recorded from the first order interactions between treatments Giza 11 X 70 kg N/fed, Giza 11 X 2500 seeds/m2 and 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2 as well as the second order interaction between treatments Giza 11 X 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2. It could be concluded that flax planting cultivar of Giza 11 and fertilizing by 70 kg N/fed with plant density of 2500 seeds/m2 to maximizing seed and oil yield/fed.

Passport data and valorisation data of 33 accessions from the collection of genetic resources of the species Linum usitatissimum L.

Summary Introduction: In 2020, the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP) implemented the contract No. 7/PW 1.2 – IWNiRZ Poznań/KCRZG/2020 for the performance of a research service under the long-term programme “Creating scientific foundations for biological progress and protection of plant genetic resources as a source of innovation and support for sustainable agriculture and safety food for country”. Objective: The aim of the research was to prepare passport and valorisation data for 33 accessions of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) sown at the INF&MP Experimental Station in Pętkowo. Methods: The field experiment was conducted on 33 samples of flax seeds, which were sown on an area of 1.6 m2. Morphological features were presented by means of numerical data and their evaluation. The agricultural characteristics (numerical values and percentage of the collective pattern) and lengths of vegetation period were also presented. The evaluation of the performed characteristics of flax accessions was presented numerically and the data were given to the International Flax Database. Results: On the basis of paper documentation, the country of origin of the accessions, the type of genotypes by origin (landrace, variety) and the date of inclusion of the accessions in the flax collection were determined. The results of the characterization of morphological trials were as follows: the total plant length of the flax plants ranged from 51.4 cm (La Estanzuella 117) to 76.5 cm (WUKR 06-417) According to the methodology of the International Flax Database, the total plant length were short (28 accessions), medium short (3) and medium (1). Technical length was usually short (28 accessions) and medium short (4 accessions). Stem thickness for all accessions was medium: 1.6–2.5 mm. The length of the panicle was long only for the Opal variety, for 25 accessions - medium and short for 6 accessions. A number of bolls from panicle was: 9.1–30.8. The 1000 seed weight was low for 25 accessions of flax and very low for 8 genotypes of flax. Conclusions: Both studied vegetation periods were short in the following flax accessions: AC Linora, Manchwrian, Noralta and T-397. Flax genotype WUKR-846 (I2010/0031) should be deleted from the flax genetic resources collection and considered as worthless as breeding material. The WUKR 06-417 accession collected during the field expedition is distinguished by a high fibre content – 27%. The highest seed yield per plot was obtained from the cultivation of the following linseed flax cultivars: Redwood, AC Mc Duff, Norlin, Noralta and Jenny.

Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates and Plant Density on Straw, Fiber Yield and Anatomical Manifestations of Some Flax Cultivars

Two field experiments were carried out at the Experimental Farm at Gemmeiza Agriculture Research Station, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt, during two successive winter growing seasons of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 to study the response of three flax cultivars, i.e. Sakha 3, Giza 11 and Giza 12 to three nitrogen fertilizer rates (30, 50 and 70 kg N/fed) and three plant densities (1500, 2000 and 2500 seeds/m2) and their effect on straw and fiber yield and its related traits as well as anatomical manifestations for flax stem at middle region. The experimental design was laid out using split-split plot design in four replications. Flax cultivars were distributed in the main plots, whereas nitrogen fertilizer rates were arranged at random in sub-plots and plant densities treatments were assigned at random in sub-sub plots. The sub-sub plot area was 9 m2. Sakha 3 cultivar significantly produced the maximum total plant height, technical stem length, total fiber percentage, fiber yield/plant, fiber yield/fed, fiber length and fiber fineness in both seasons. Meanwhile, the highest No. of basal branches/plant, straw yield/plant and straw yield/fed in both seasons were recorded with Giza 12 cultivar. Meanwhile, Giza 11 cultivar gave the thickness stem diameter in both seasons. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer rates from 30 to 70 kg N/fed caused significant increases in all straw and fiber yield and its related traits of flax, except fiber fineness was significantly decreased with increasing nitrogen rates in both seasons. Increasing plant densities from 1500 to 2500 seeds/m2 caused markedly increment in total plant height, technical stem length, straw yield/fed, total fiber percentage, fiber yield/fed, fiber length and fiber fineness during both seasons. On the other hand, No. of basal branches/plant, stem diameter, straw yield/plant and fiber yield/plant were significantly decreased by increasing plant densities during both seasons. The first order interactions between treatments Sakha 3 X 70 kg N/fed, Sakha 3 X 2500 seeds/m2 and 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2 as well as the second order interaction between treatments Sakha 3 X 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2 were significantly recorded the highest total plant height, technical stem length, fiber yield/fed and fiber length as compared with the others interactions in both seasons. While, the maximum fiber yield/fed were recorded from the first order interactions between treatments Sakha 3 X 70 kg N/fed, Sakha 3 X 2500 seeds/m2 and 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2 as well as the second order interaction between treatments Sakha 3 X 70 kg N/fed X 2500 seeds/m2. Data illustrated an increase in each of total cross section area, cortex area, fiber area, xylem area, fiber index per plant, cortex % and xylem % in all flax cultivars under study (Sakha 3, Giza 11 and Giza 12) as affected by fertilized flax plants with 70 kg N/fed and plant density at 1500 seeds/m2. It could be concluded that Sakha 3 cultivar and fertilizing by 70 kg N/fed with plant density of 2500 seeds/m2 to maximizing fiber yield/fed and quality.

The Toolbox for Fiber Flax Breeding: A Pipeline From Gene Expression to Fiber Quality.

The goal of any plant breeding program is to improve quality of a target crop. Crop quality is a comprehensive feature largely determined by biological background. To improve the quality parameters of crops grown for the production of fiber, a functional approach was used to search for genes suitable for the effective manipulation of technical fiber quality. A key step was to identify genes with tissue and stage-specific pattern of expression in the developing fibers. In the current study, we investigated the relationship between gene expression evaluated in bast fibers of developing flax plants and the quality parameters of technical fibers measured after plant harvesting. Based on previously published transcriptomic data, two sets of genes that are upregulated in fibers during intrusive growth and tertiary cell wall deposition were selected. The expression level of the selected genes and fiber quality parameters were measured in fiber flax, linseed (oil flax) cultivars, and wild species that differ in type of yield and fiber quality parameters. Based on gene expression data, linear regression models for technical stem length, fiber tensile strength, and fiber flexibility were constructed, resulting in the identification of genes that have high potential for manipulating fiber quality. Chromosomal localization and single nucleotide polymorphism distribution in the selected genes were characterized for the efficacy of their use in conventional breeding and genome editing programs. Transcriptome-based selection is a highly targeted functional approach that could be used during the development of new cultivars of various crops.

Molecular analysis of somaclonal variation in Linum usitatissimum and L. album

Flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) is an important oilseed crop, with an annual world production of around three million tons. Flax is a crop with a rather low genetic variability and agriculturally important traits. Biotechnology and somaclonal variation is a potential way of inducing genetic variation in Linum. Therefore, we studied the occurrence of somaclonal variation and genetic variability in both flax plant and its wild relative, Linum album. We used a combination of simple sequence repeats (SSRs), and Expressed sequence tag SSRs (EST-SSRs), as well as inter-retrotransposon amplified polymorphism (IRAP) and retrotransposon-microsatellite amplified polymorphism (REMAP) molecular markers for genetic analyses. Tissue culture regenerated plants differed from mother plants in their morphological and genetic content. Moreover, some new bands were observed in regenerated plants in all molecular markers studied, probably due to soma clonal variation. The genetic changes occurred seemed to be genotype-dependent as evidenced by network analysis. This study reveals the potential application of somaclonal variation to induce new genetic variation in flax plant which may be of use in its future breeding.

Determinant morphological features of flax plant products and their contribution in injection moulded composite reinforcement

The use of biomass in injection moulded or extruded thermoplastic composites is an important issue, especially when trying to add value to low-cost co-products. The objective of this work was to conduct a complete study on the morphological characterisation and carbohydrate analysis of a range of co-products obtained during the processing of flax straw. Thus, the morphology of (i) cut flax fibres, (ii) fragmented shives, and (iii) scutching and carding dusts is characterised using a dynamic image analyser with a sieving approach. These different fractions are then used to produce injection moulded composite materials. Their mechanical performances are discussed in relation to the morphology of the reinforcements, as well as their carbohydrate compositions and fine particle contents. Co-products, based on their reinforcement properties, can be classified into three categories. In all cases, a reinforcing effect is demonstrated for the tensile Young's modulus with an increase from +24 to +137% depending of the material. A linear relationship was observed between the cellulose content of reinforcing material and the tensile strength at break of the injection moulded composites. The results are promising for adding value to all flax co-products in plastics processing, targeting industrial applications in line with their intrinsic performances.

Synthesis and efficacy of herbicidal ionic liquids with chlorsulfuron as the anion

AbstractIn the framework of this research, four new herbicidal ionic liquids (HILs) comprising chlorsulfuron as the anion were synthesized and characterized. The new salts with chlorsulfuron contained the following cations: tetramethylammonium, didecyldimethylammonium, benzyltrimethylammonium and cholinium. All products were obtained with high yields exceeding 90% via acid–base reaction or ion exchange reaction, by the use of environment-friendly solvents. The structures of all synthesized HILs were confirmed by FT-IR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR analyses. Their efficacy against weeds has been studied under field conditions in fiber flax. All HILs showed herbicidal activity but efficiency was highly dependent on the type of cation and weed species. There were no statistically significant differences in the effectiveness of HILs toward common lambsquarters compared to the reference herbicide, except for salt with cholinium cation that showed significantly lower efficiency. As regards barnyard grass control, all HILs exhibited significantly lower efficacy than that of the reference herbicide, except for didecyldimethylammonium salt that showed similar activity. The synthesized products did not cause damage to flax plants. The obtained results confirmed that the herbicidal effectiveness of the active ingredient (chlorsulfuron) in the form of an ionic liquid can be adjusted by the selection of an appropriate cation in the synthesis.

Stress tolerance in flax plants inoculated with Bacillus and Azotobacter species under deficit irrigation.

Drought stress affects not only crop growth but also its morpho-physiological and biochemical traits to reduce crop productivity. The study reported in this article was designed and implemented to determine the effects of deficit irrigation and bacterial inoculation on flax plants. For this purpose, seeds were inoculated with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B1 ), Bacillus sp. Strain1 (B2 ), and Azotobacter chroococcum (A) as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). The individual inoculated plants were then grown under field conditions in 2015, while individually and in combination in pots in 2016. The irrigation regimes in either experiments included 50, 75 and 100% crop water requirement. Bacterial cultures were observed to produce ammonia (except B2 ), indole acetic acid and siderophores. Results showed that the PGPRs significantly mitigated the effects of water deficit. Compared with the control plants, the bacterially-inoculated plants had an enhanced relative water content, plant height, water-soluble carbohydrate and proline contents and antioxidant enzyme activities, but a decreased malondialdehyde content. B1 exhibited greater effects on most of the traits investigated under the field conditions rather than those with moderate and severe drought stress, while application of the triple bacteria in pots had greater effects on relative water content, carbohydrate and proline contents as well as malondialdehyde. The significant differences in abiotic stress indicators in PGPR-treated plants suggest that these bacteria could be used as biofertilizers to assist plant growth and to reduce the adverse effects of deficit irrigation.

Zinc-oxide and nano ZnO oxide effects on growth, some biochemical aspects, yield quantity, and quality of flax (Linum uitatissimum L.) in absence and presence of compost under sandy soil

BackgroundNanofertilizers have been provided a new efficient alternative to normal regular fertilizers. Nano-particles can help in increasing reactive points of these nanoparticles, which increases the absorption of these fertilizers in plants.Materials and methodsThus, a field experiment was conducted in sandy soil during two winter seasons of 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 at experimental station of National conditions, El-Behira Governorate-Egypt. The objective of this study was the effect of ZnO as normal chelated micronutrient and ZnO as nanoparticle foliar application at rates of 0, 20, 40, and 60 mg/L, with two rates of compost (0.0 and 3.00 ton/fed) on growth parameters, photosynthetic pigments, yield, and chemical analysis of flax (Linum usitatissimum L cv., Sakha-2) plants.ResultsThe obtained results showed that adding of compost to the sandy soil by 3.0 ton/fed, increased markedly growth parameters (shoot and root length (cm), fresh and dry weights (g), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and total pigments (μg/g fresh wt)), free amino acids and proline (mg/100 g dry wt), total carbohydrate percentage, yield quantity and quality (technical shoot, fruiting zone lengths and plant height (cm), No. of fruiting branches/plant and No. of capsules/plant, weight of straw (g), weight of 1000 seeds (g), biological yield (kg/fed), seed yield (kg/fed), and straw yield (kg/fed)), oil percentage, and oil yield (kg/fed) compared to control treatments (without compost). Also, the obtained data clarified that applied foliar treatment with normal ZnO with rates 40 mg/L significantly increased the yield and all parameters of flax plant during studied growing seasons. The interaction between compost addition and different concentrations of either ZnO or nano ZnO revealed that different concentrations increased different studied parameters without or with the addition of compost to sandy soil as compared with untreated plants.ConclusionTreatment of flax plant with ZnO and nano ZnO improved the studied growth parameters, biochemical aspects, and consequent yield in the absence and presence of compost.

Establishment of the 'imbibed seed piercing' method for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of jute and flax bast fibre crops via phloem-specific expression of the β-glucuronidase Gene

Jute (Corchorus capsularis) and flax (Linum usitatissimum) have been established as important sources of bast fibres (phloem fibres) worldwide. These long and lustrous natural fibres are used for various commercial and industrial purposes and hold immense future prospects. To meet the worldwide demand for bast fibres, improvement in the production and quality of jute and flax is essential. Molecular breeding is an expeditious approach for varietal improvement and requires an efficient gene transformation system. The available methods for jute and flax transformation are highly specific to species and variety, requiring a long time and rigorous preparation of media, explants, and screening procedures. In this study, we used a fast and stable method for Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of jute (variety JRC321) and flax (variety FT-897), known as the ‘imbibed seed piercing’ method (ISPM), where seeds were used as explants. A phloem-specific Arabidopsis sucrose-proton H+ symporter 2 (AtSUC2) promoter-driven gus gene (β-glucuronidase) was used for the assessment of genetic transformation of jute and flax plants. Transformed seedlings were selected following three consecutive selection pressure tests conducted at two-week intervals using kanamycin-supplemented culture media. Transgene integration was verified using Southern blotting and PCR-based molecular characterization of jute and flax plants. The gus gene expression levels in the transgenic jute and flax tissue samples were analysed by semi-quantitative and quantitative RT-PCR. The GUS protein expression in transgenic plant tissues was confirmed by the development of blue colour in the histochemical GUS assay. Blue colouration was observed only in phloem cells of the tested plant tissues. Transgenic progeny plants of subsequent generations followed the 3:1 transgene segregation pattern and exhibited phloem-specific GUS expression. This fast, easy, and stable ISPM could also be applied to other fibre producing industrial crops and could form a part of a modern CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing tool by efficiently delivering CRISPR vectors in jute and flax plants.

INFLUENCE OF METHODS FOR SELECTION OF PLANTS AND WAYS OF SEEDING ON EFFICIENCY OF ORIGINAL SEEDS OF FLAX-DOLGUNETS GRROWING IN PRIMARY SEED BREEDING

The results of scientific research are presented, which made it possible to develop less labor-intensive methods for selecting flax plants to grow original (updated) seeds. Studies have shown that a positive selection of tall plants of flax, compared with the accepted counterpart (control), increased seed yield 1.7-1.9 times. Moreover, plant homogeneity according to the main characteristics (height and fiber content in the stem) characterizing the varietal quality of grown seeds turned out to be at the control level. A negative selection, involving the removal of atypical plants, provided an increase in the output volume of seeds compared to the control by 3.9-4.1 times. This selection method did not reduce the varietal quality of seed material compared to the accepted analogue. With both selection methods, after combining typical plants, seeds with the same high germination rates were obtained (96-99 %). The breeding efficiency of the grown flax seeds using narrow-row sowing methods is shown. Studies have established that narrow-row sowing of seeds with a row-spacing of 7.5 and 6.25 cm compared with sowing by a wide-row method significantly increased their yield by 2.8-3.0 and 2.3-3.0 kg / ha, respectively. The greatest influence on the formation of seed yield in narrow-row sowing (6.25 cm) was exerted by the method of sowing, the part of which was 76.1 %. As the length of seed propagation of flax in creased (up to the uterine elite 2 years) in narrow-row sowing (6.25 cm) compared to broad-row, there was no decrease in quality indicators - germination and seed strength.

Silicon Alleviates Copper Toxicity in Flax Plants by Up-Regulating Antioxidant Defense and Secondary Metabolites and Decreasing Oxidative Damage

In recent years, nutrient management has gained much attention as a way to mitigate heavy metal stress. Silicon (Si) promotes plant defense responses against toxic metal stresses. In this study, we evaluated the effects of silicon (Si) on copper (Cu) toxicity in two flax genotypes (Sakha 1 and Sakha 2) as it relates to plant growth, yield attributes, total chlorophyll, nucleic acid content, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, oxidative damage, lipid peroxidation, copper and silicon content, and fatty acid composition. The results showed that Cu (100 and 200 µM) inhibited plant growth and increased Cu accumulation in soil, roots, and shoots. Cu significantly decreased the yield attributes, total chlorophyll by 9.5% and 22% in Sakha 1 and by 22.5% and 29% in Sakha 2, and enhanced the accumulation of non-enzymatic (tocopherol), enzymatic antioxidants such as superoxide dismnutase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase and catalase) and secondary metabolites (phenol and flavonoids). The DNA content significantly decreased in stressed plants with 100 and 200 µM Cu about 22% and 44%, respectively, in Sakha 1 and about 21.6% and 34.7% in Sakha 2, and RNA content also decreased by about 20% and 29%, respectively, in Sakha 1 and by about 2% and 13% in Sakha 2 compared to the control plant. Furthermore, Cu stress accelerated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and induced cellular oxidative injury caused by lipid peroxidation. In parallel, Cu induced a change in the composition of fatty acids, resulting in lower unsaturated fatty acid levels and increased saturated fatty acids (increased saturation/unsaturation ratio for both genotypes). Treating the flax plants with irrigation three times with Si protected the plants from Cu toxicity. Si treatment decreased the uptake and the transport of Cu to the shoots and harvested seeds and promoted plant growth, yield attributes, and antioxidant defense systems by reducing Cu accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and the generation of H2O2. In addition, the alleviation of Cu toxicity correlated with increased Si accumulation in the roots and shoots. In conclusion, Si can be used to improve the resistance of flax plants to Cu toxicity by up-regulating the antioxidant defense system such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) and decreasing the oxidative damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).