Individual Fitness Level Research Articles

Safety and efficiency of supervised aerobic exercise training, using cardiovascular machines, for patients with terminal heart failure, included in heart transplant waiting list

Purpose of research is to assess safety and efficiency of controlled aerobic training for patients with terminal heart failure (HF) and to develop methodology of interval training using treadmill and cycle for HF patients, included in heart transplant waiting list (HTWL). Nineteen males with terminal HF, included in HTWL, aged 22–64, with left ventricular ejection fraction 11–33% were assessed. Initially, 6-minute walk (6MW) and cardiopulmonary test (CPT) were performed, and the type of aerobic training was selected in accordance to individual cardiorespiratory fitness level and personal cardiovascular machine preference. Study group included HF patients with stable hemodynamic data, without inotropic therapy, with 6MW distance from 100 to 427 m, and CPT results from 5.4 to 13.4 mL/kg/min. All patients participated in long-term (2–12 months) 4–5 days a week interval training. The duration of training session was 6–30 min according to patient's individual working capacity and subjective condition. Heart rate reserve for study group was calculated: HRR = (190-age)-HRrest, and the HRtraining was determined as 30–40% of HRR. Training speed (V) on treadmill = 50% of V (6MW-test) km/hour. After 2–12 months of training sessions, all patients demonstrated increase: training duration from 13.1 min at baseline to 25 min (av. 11.9 ± 0.4 min) Р < 0.05; treadmill walking distance from 356 m at baseline to 742 m (av. 386 ± 16 m) Р < 0.01; treadmill walking speed from 1.58 km/hour at baseline to 2.37 km/hour (av. 0.78 ± 0.01 km/hour) Р < 0.001. The number of training sessions was associated with growth of treadmill walking distance ( r = 0.38) and overall session duration ( r = 0.6). All patients well-tolerated individualized physical training sessions with intensity regulated by the proposed formula. No complications were registered. In total, 77.7% of patients self-selected cardiovascular machine: 42.1% preferred treadmill, but 31.6% used both treadmill and cycle. Controlled training, using cardiovascular machines, are safe, well-tolerated and effective for patients with terminal HF, included in HTWL, in case of self-selection of the machine and individualised training intensity level.

Lymphocytes and monocytes egress peripheral blood within minutes after cessation of steady state exercise: A detailed temporal analysis of leukocyte extravasation.

Acute exercise evokes an almost instantaneous lymphocytosis, followed by sustained lymphopenia that occurs within just 30-60 min after exercise cessation. The aim of this study was to characterize the immediate (order of minutes) post-exercise kinetics of lymphocyte and monocyte egress, and to determine whether this egress is associated with heart rate recovery following a single bout of steady state dynamic exercise. Eleven healthy subjects cycled for 30-min at ~70% of their estimated peak power. Blood samples were collected from an intravenous catheter before exercise, during exercise (E) at +15 and +30 min, and during passive recovery (R) at exactly +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 and +10 min after exercise cessation. Complete blood counts and flow cytometry were used to enumerate total monocytes, lymphocytes: CD3+ T-cells, CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells, NK-cells and γδ T-cells in whole blood. Both lymphocytes and monocytes displayed rapid egress kinetics, by R+3 the total numbers of all cell types examined were significantly lower than E+30. NK-cells egressed more rapidly than other lymphocyte subtypes, followed by CD8+, γδ, and then CD4+ T-cells. Further, the egress of NK-cells, CD4+, and CD8+ T-cells positively correlated with heart rate recovery after exercise cessation. In conclusion, lymphocyte and monocyte egress is rapid and occurs within minutes of exercise recovery, underscoring both the importance of collection time for post exercise blood samples, and the use of intravenous catheters to capture peak cell mobilization. The rate of egress may be dependent on how quickly hemodynamic equilibrium is restored on cessation of exercise and is, therefore, likely to be influenced by individual fitness levels.

Physical Activity: Absolute Intensity versus Relative-to-Fitness-Level Volumes.

This study aimed to investigate in a real-life setting how moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity (PA) volumes differ according to absolute intensity recommendation and relative to individual fitness level by sex, age, and body mass index. A total of 23,224 Finnish employees (10,201 men and 13,023 women; ages 18-65 yr; body mass index = 18.5-40.0 kg·m) participated in heart rate recording for 2+ d. We used heart rate and its variability, respiration rate, and on/off response information from R-R interval data calibrated by participant characteristics to objectively determine daily PA volume, as follows: daily minutes of absolute moderate (3-<6 METs) and vigorous (≥6 METs) PA and minutes relative to individual aerobic fitness for moderate (40%-<60% of oxygen uptake reserve) and vigorous (≥60%) PA. According to absolute intensity categorization, the volume of both moderate- and vigorous-intensity PA was higher in men compared with women (P < 0.001), in younger compared with older participants (P < 0.001), and in normal weight compared with overweight or obese participants (P < 0.001). When the volume of PA intensity was estimated relative to individual fitness level, the differences were much smaller. Mean daily minutes of absolute vigorous-intensity PA were higher than those of relative intensity minutes in normal weight men ages 18-40 yr (17.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 16.9-18.6, vs 8.6, 95% CI = 8.0-9.1; P < 0.001), but the reverse was the case for obese women ages 41-65 yr (0.3, 95% CI = 0.2-0.4, vs 7.8, 95% CI = 7.2-8.4; P < 0.001). Compared with low-fit persons, high-fit persons more frequently reach an absolute target PA intensity, but reaching the target is more similar for relative intensity.

Physical fitness of individuals with intellectual disability who have Special Olympics experience

Physical fitness of individuals with intellectual disability (ID) is low compared to those without ID. Part of the missionof Special Olympics is to develop physical fitness. However, little is known about fitness levels of SpecialOlympics athletes. This study examined the fitness level of individuals who participated in Nordic Special OlympicsGames 2008 in Finland. The sample consisted of 59 Special Olympics athletes (44 men, 15 women, age 16–45)whose fitness scores were compared to INAS-athletes (International Association of Sport for para-athletes withID) and Finnish non-athletic individuals with ID. The fitness battery consisted of 8 items: BMI, sit-and-reachtest, stork stand, sit up, standing long jump, hand grip, shuttle run, and 1 mile/2 km walk test. BMI values werein the range of the nondisabled population. All other fitness values were below the means of the INAS-athletes, butabove the Finnish non-athletes. Based on this data which is supported by the existing literature, the level of fitnessof Special Olympics athletes needs further scrutiny. Given that the participants were Special Olympics athletes, whotrained regularly, the low fitness level is alarming. Therefore, a closer examination of the contents of physical fitnesstraining programs in Special Olympics is warranted.

The Impact of Fitness on Surgical Outcomes: The Case for Prehabilitation.

In recent years, a growing body of research has demonstrated that an individual's fitness level is a strong and independent marker of risk for cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. In addition, modest improvements in fitness through exercise intervention have been associated with considerable health outcome benefits. These studies have generally assessed fitness as a baseline marker in traditional epidemiological cohorts. However, there has been a recent recognition that fitness powerfully predicts outcomes associated with a wide range of surgical interventions. The concept of 'prehabilitation' is based on the principle that patients with higher functional capability will better tolerate a surgical intervention, and studies have shown that patients with higher fitness have reduced postoperative complications and demonstrate better functional, psychosocial, and surgery-related outcomes. This review focuses on the impact of fitness on surgical outcomes and provides a rationale in support of routine application of prehabilitation in the management of patients undergoing surgery.

The Effect of Walking Exercise on Fitness and Metabolic Abnormal Factors in Patients with Schizophrenia

The increase in developing obesity and metabolic syndrome becomes another burden in patients with schizophrenia who took antipsychotics. Exercise and lifestyle modification are suggested as effective and primary management for the chronic diseases. Walking is a feasible lifestyle activity but ceiling effect due to a relative low intensity is challenged. PURPOSE:To compare the effect of different walking exercises on fitness and metabolic abnormal factors in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS:Fifty-six admitted patients, meeting DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia and having antipsychotic-treated under stable medical condition, were recruited and divided into three groups: walking prescription group (Wp, set target speed and distance based on individual fitness level, n=22), free walking group (Wf, encouraged to walk 30 minutes per day, n=20) and control group (C, n=14). Physical fitness (e.g. step physical fitness index and leg strength) and metabolic factors (e.g. waist girth, blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose and lipids) were assessed before and after 6-month intervention. Basic data and clinical features were also investigated. RESULTS:After adjusting for age, sex and baseline values, Wp got significantly improvement on muscular fitness of abdominal muscle endurance and leg strength after 6-month intervention. While subjects in both Wf and C got little improvement or regressed on muscular fitness. Metabolic factors were not significantly different among three groups on pre- and post 6-month intervention. The change of step physical fitness index, however, significantly correlated to the change of triglycerides after 6-month intervention (Pearson’s r=-0.57, p<0.001). A negative correlation was also found between the change of abdominal muscle endurance and the change of systolic blood pressure (Pearson’s r=-0.32, p=0.039). CONCLUSIONS:Walking exercise by setting a route with prescribed distance and slope individually for 5 days a week is feasible and more effective for patients with schizophrenia.

The Aetiology of Reduced Cardiorespiratory Fitness Among Adults with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury and the Relationship with Physical Activity: A Narrative Review

Reduced cardiorespiratory fitness or cardiorespiratory deconditioning is a secondary physical impairment commonly reported to affect people after traumatic brain injury (TBI), both in the short- and long-term. Eleven studies have measured peak oxygen uptake${\rm ({\dot V}O}_{{\rm 2peak}} )$to evaluate fitness in this population. The mean (SD)${\rm \dot VO}_{{\rm 2peak}}$from these studies was 27.2 (6.7) mL.kg−1·min−1, which is markedly below the average fitness level of age-matched healthy individuals. The aetiology of cardiorespiratory deconditioning has not been well evaluated among people with TBI; however, studies on prolonged bed rest and studies on the acute consequences of TBI inform our current understanding. The primary aim of this paper is to present a model to describe the physiological factors contributing to the development of cardiorespiratory deconditioning among people with severe TBI. We propose that both central and peripheral factors contribute to reduced fitness, and that these changes occur because of both the initial brain damage and trauma sustained and the prolonged and initially extreme physical inactivity that is commonly experienced after this type of injury. Reduced fitness can significantly affect the ability to return to pre-injury activities. Given that reintegration into the community is a key goal of rehabilitation among people with TBI, interventions that can prevent or reverse reduced fitness need to be implemented.

Aerobic Fitness Affects the Exercise Performance Responses to Nitrate Supplementation.

Dietary nitrate supplementation has been shown to reduce O2 cost of submaximal exercise, improve exercise tolerance, and enhance performance in moderately trained individuals. In contrast, data have been provided that elite athletes do not benefit from nitrate supplementation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of short-term nitrate supplementation on endurance performance in subjects with different levels of aerobic fitness. Twenty-one subjects (mean age, 22.7 ± 1.8 yr) with different aerobic fitness level (V˙O2peak value ranging from 28.2 to 81.7 mL·kg·min) participated in a crossover double-blind placebo-controlled study. Subjects were tested after 6 d of supplementation with either 0.5 l per day of nitrate (5.5 mmol)-containing water (NITR) or nitrate-free water (PLA). Participants performed an incremental running test until exhaustion and four repetitions of 6-min submaximal (approximately 80% of gas exchange threshold) constant load exercise on a motorized treadmill. Moreover, subjects performed a 3-km running time trial on the field. After NITR, a negative correlation between reduction of O2 cost of submaximal exercise and individual aerobic fitness level was observed (r = 0.80; P < 0.0001). A significant inverse correlation was also found between aerobic fitness level and improvement in performance for 3-km time trial after NITR (r = 0.76; P < 0.0001). Additionally, subjects responded differently to dietary nitrate supplementation according to aerobic fitness level with higher-fit subjects showing a lower increase in plasma [NO3] (r = 0.86; P < 0.0001) and [NO2] (r = 0.75; P < 0.0001). The results of the present study suggest that the individual aerobic fitness level affects the ergogenic benefits induced by dietary nitrate supplementation. The optimal nitrate loading regimen required to elevate plasma [NO2] and to enhance performance in elite athletes is different from that of low-fit subjects and requires further studies.

Exercise-induced changes in basal ganglia volume and cognition in older adults

Physical activity has been demonstrated to diminish age-related brain volume shrinkage in several brain regions accompanied by a reduction of age-related decline in cognitive functions. Most studies investigated the impact of cardiovascular fitness or training. Other types of fitness or training are less well investigated. In addition, little is known about exercise effects on volume of the basal ganglia, which, however, are involved in motor activities and cognitive functioning. In the current study (1) we examined the relationships of individual cardiovascular and motor fitness levels with the volume of the basal ganglia (namely caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus) and selected cognitive functions (executive control, perceptual speed). (2) We investigated the effect of 12-month training interventions (cardiovascular and coordination training, control group stretching and relaxation) on the volume of the respective basal ganglia nuclei. Results revealed that motor fitness but not cardiovascular fitness was positively related with the volume of the putamen and the globus pallidus. Additionally, a moderating effect of the volume of the basal ganglia (as a whole, but also separately for putamen and globus pallidus) on the relationship between motor fitness and executive function was revealed. Coordination training increased caudate and globus pallidus volume. We provide evidence that coordinative exercise seems to be a favorable leisure activity for older adults that has the potential to improve volume of the basal ganglia.

Muscle activity and spine load during anterior chain whole body linkage exercises: the body saw, hanging leg raise and walkout from a push-up

This study examined anterior chain whole body linkage exercises, namely the body saw, hanging leg raise and walkout from a push-up. Investigation of these exercises focused on which particular muscles were challenged and the magnitude of the resulting spine load. Fourteen males performed the exercises while muscle activity, external force and 3D body segment motion were recorded. A sophisticated and anatomically detailed 3D model used muscle activity and body segment kinematics to estimate muscle force, and thus sensitivity to each individual's choice of motor control for each task. Gradations of muscle activity and spine load characteristics were observed across tasks. On average, the hanging straight leg raise created approximately 3000 N of spine compression while the body saw created less than 2500 N. The hanging straight leg raise created the highest challenge to the abdominal wall (>130% MVC in rectus abdominis, 88% MVC in external oblique). The body saw resulted in almost 140% MVC activation of the serratus anterior. All other exercises produced substantial abdominal challenge, although the body saw did so in the most spine conserving way. These findings, along with consideration of an individual's injury history, training goals and current fitness level, should assist in exercise choice and programme design.

Does the inverted-U function disappear in expert athletes? An analysis of the attentional behavior under physical exercise of athletes and non-athletes

A number of studies document that physical exercise influences cognitive performance in a variety of ways. Some of these studies present the relationship between the workload of exercise and the activation level of the central nervous system as an inverted-U relationship. Among the factors that could be responsible for diverging results are the participants' individual fitness level and the athletic status. While athletes and non-athletes do not differ in general cognitive skills, athletes are better able to maintain these during physical exercise especially under high exercise intensities. Hence, we hypothesized that the inverted-U function applies for non-athletes but disappears in team sports experts. We compared athletes' and non-athletes' cognitive performance on a measure of attentional behavior under three different physical exercise intensities. Results showed an increase of non-athletes' attentional breadth right up to a certain level of maximal aerobic power before decreasing, as expected according to an inverted-U curve. In contrast, athletes' attentional breadth continued to increase with higher physical exercise intensities. We concluded that physical exercise influences participants' attentional behavior and that individual fitness acts as a moderator of this relationship.

Cardiorespiratory fitness in individuals with intellectual disabilities—A review

Cardiorespiratory fitness is the ability of the circulatory, respiratory and muscular systems to supply oxygen during sustained physical activity. Low cardiorespiratory fitness levels have been found in individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID), which puts them at higher risk for cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality. The aims of this review were to update previous reviews about (a) the cardiorespiratory fitness levels and their determinants in individuals with ID, and (b) the validity and reliability of cardiorespiratory fitness testing in individuals with ID. We searched the databases of Pubmed and Embase for relevant studies, resulting in 31 included articles. These studies mainly included younger participants with mild to moderate ID. Results confirmed previous findings of low cardiorespiratory fitness levels in individuals with ID. Cardiorespiratory fitness levels of children and adolescents with ID are already low, with further decline with increasing age. Furthermore, females have lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels than males. Physical inactivity and chronotropic incompetence are most likely to contribute to low cardiorespiratory fitness levels. Peak cardiorespiratory fitness levels of individuals with ID can be assessed with maximal treadmill protocols, after allowing for familiarization sessions. Although, predicting maximal oxygen uptake from field tests is problematic, field tests have been found valid and reliable as indicators of cardiorespiratory fitness.

The psychological burden of obesity: the potential harmful impact of health promotion and education programmes targeting obese individuals

Despite evidence that individual fitness levels rather than body weight are more closely linked to health outcomes, stereotypes held about overweight and obese people have resulted in pervasive levels of discrimination. It is of little wonder that overweight and obese people have been found to be unhappy. The current investigation explored the psychological burden being experienced by overweight and obese people while also examining their perceived ability to engage in exercise. Depression, anxiety and stress levels were all found to be unacceptably high for the current sample, while exercise self-efficacy or perceived ability to engage in exercise was low. Given these characteristics, messages exhorting obese people to eat less and exercise more may do little except increase the stigmatisation and levels of despair experienced by them. Those designing public health promotion and education campaigns aimed at decreasing obesity need to be cognisant of the harm that a focus on obese and overweight individuals can potentially cause. A public health focus on greater fitness for all, regardless of weight, would serve the entire population while minimising the risk of perpetuating discriminatory stereotypes about overweight and obese individuals.

Does an Individual's Fitness Level Affect Baseline Concussion Symptoms?

Variables that may influence baseline concussion symptoms should be investigated. To evaluate the effect of physical fitness on self-report of baseline concussion symptoms in collegiate athletes and students. Controlled laboratory study. A total of 125 undergraduates, including 95 collegiate athletes and 30 recreational athletes (83 males, 42 females). Participants completed the Standardized Concussion Assessment Tool 2 (SCAT2; symptom report) at baseline, within 10 minutes of completing the Leger test, and within 24 hours of the initial baseline test. The Leger (beep) test is a shuttle-run field test used to predict maximal aerobic power. The total symptom score on the SCAT2 was calculated and analyzed with a repeated-measures analysis of variance. A linear regression analysis was used to determine if 3 variables (sport type, sex, or fitness level) accounted for a significant amount of the variance in the baseline symptom report. Participants reported more symptoms postactivity but fewer symptoms at 24 hours compared with baseline, representing a time effect in our model (F2,234 = 47.738, P < .001). No interactions were seen among the independent variables. We also found an effect for fitness level, with fitter individuals reporting fewer symptoms at all 3 time intervals. The regression analysis revealed that fitness level accounted for a significant amount of the variance in SCAT2 symptoms at baseline (R (2) = 0.22, F3,121 = 11.44, P < .01). Fitness level affected the baseline concussion symptom report. Exercise seems to induce concussion symptom reporting, and symptom severity may be a function of an athlete's level of conditioning. Sports medicine professionals should consider an athlete's level of fitness when conducting baseline concussion symptom assessments.

Modeling exercise effects on cardiovascular fitness using STELLA

As physical and metabolic fitness continues to play a large role in the development of chronic disease, it is desirable to know precisely how exercise and workout routines may affect measures of cardiovascular fitness. Likewise, it would be helpful to be able to quantitatively design exercise routines to optimize fitness outcomes for an individual. Using STELLA modeling software we used the individual physical fitness level determined using standardized tests and compared to published norms, combined with published dose‐response data from fitness test‐specific exercise studies to develop a mathematical model of human fitness level gains. The model was validated against two independent sets of published data that measured change in VO2max following exercise interventions. Predicted values for VO2max had standard errors of 3.99% and 4.39%, respectively, when the independent study parameters were entered into the model. This model may best be used as a tool to calculate how specific interventions might impact cardiovascular fitness or be used to quantitatively develop specific fitness routines to maximize or optimize cardiovascular fitness.

Normative Functional Fitness Standards and Trends of Portuguese Older Adults: Cross-Cultural Comparisons

This cross-sectional study was designed to develop normative functional fitness standards for the Portuguese older adults, to analyze age and gender patterns of decline, to compare the fitness level of Portuguese older adults with that of older adults in other countries, and to evaluate the fitness level of Portuguese older adults relative to recently published criterion fitness standards associated with maintaining physical independence. A sample of 4,712 independent-living older adults, age 65-103 yr, was evaluated using the Senior Fitness Test battery. Age-group normative fitness scores are reported for the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentiles. Results indicate that both women and men experience age-related losses in all components of functional fitness, with their rate of decline being greater than that observed in other populations, a trend which may cause Portuguese older adults to be at greater risk for loss of independence in later years. These newly established normative standards make it possible to assess individual fitness level and provide a basis for implementing population-wide health strategies to counteract early loss of independence.

Exercise at 65 and Beyond

Aging is characterized by increasing muscle loss, physical inactivity and frailty. Physical inactivity is known to be associated with increased incidence of obesity and many life-threatening chronic conditions. We know that exercise, through many factors including antiinflammatory effects and enhanced fitness, can help prevent and treat many chronic diseases as well as help maintain independent living. We set out to demonstrate the utility of regular exercise in this potentially vulnerable age group in both the treatment and prevention of chronic diseases. The benefits, risks and recommendations for physical activity are discussed with an emphasis on practical advice for safe exercise in the context of established international guidelines. These guidelines typically state that 150min per week of moderate aerobic intensity exercise should be achieved with some additional whole-body strength training and balance work. Individual risk assessment should be undertaken in a way to enable safe exercise participation to achieve maximum benefit with minimum risk. The risk assessment, subsequent advice and prescription for exercise should be personalized to reflect individual fitness and functional levels as well as patient safety. Newer and potentially exciting benefits of exercise are discussed in the areas of neuroscience and inflammation where data are suggesting positive effects of exercise in maintaining memory and cognition as well as having beneficial antiinflammatory effects.

Exploring Avenues for Raising HDL Cholesterol

Exploring Avenues for Raising HDL Cholesterol

Predictors of adolescent fitness levels among Swedish adolescents, a longitudinal study

Introduction: It has been consistently demonstrated that low aerobic fitness is causally linked to increased cardio-metabolic risk. Aerobic fitness has also been causally related to cognitive function. From adolescence and onwards, the inter-individual stability (tracking) in fitness is fairly high. An individual's fitness level in adolescence is therefore a central determinant for future health. However, childhood predictors of adolescent fitness levels are largely unknown. The present study aimed at identifying personal, school-specific and structural determinants in childhood (age 10 yrs) for adolescent aerobic fitness (at age 16 yrs).Methods: Body mass index-based overweight status (normal weight vs overweight/obese, according to Cole et al.) and gross motor skills (based on the Tiden-Nyberg test) were measured at baseline in 209 Swedish children (mean [SD] age 9.8 [0.60] yrs) from randomly selected schools on Sweden. Immigration status (self-report) and average household income in quartiles on community level (register obtained) were used as possible structural confounders. Data on educational status of the PE teacher and lesson structure (gender-separated vs mixed classes) was obtained from the PE teacher. At the reexamination (at age 15.8 [0.33] yrs), aerobic fitness was estimated using the Astrand-Ryhming nomogram. Low aerobic fitness was defined as below the first quartile (29.7 mL x min-1 x kg-1). Risk for low aerobic fitness was assessed using logistic regressionResults: Risk for low aerobic fitness at follow-up was lower in children who were normal weight (OR: 0.23.95% CI: 0.10 to 0.49) and in children with trained PE-teachers (OR: 0.40, 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.93), but higher among children with poor gross motor skills (OR:1.84, 95% CI 1.08 to 3.13) at baseline. Gender, immigration history, neighborhood economical status and lesson structure were all non-significant predictors of low adolescent fitness.Discussion: The results stress the importance for early overweight prevention and treatment and for professional identification and treatment of children with impaired gross motor skills at young ages. In Sweden, a lagre proportion of PE-teachers in lower grades lack formal PE-teacher education, which according to the present study poses a threat to children's future health. Early screening and treatment of children with limited motor proficiencies seems may help children adapting a physically active lifestyle and avoiding low fitness levels in adolescence and young adulthood.

Immunological parameters in elderly women: Correlations with aerobic power, muscle strength and mood state

Our objective was to relate immunological data for healthy but sedentary elderly women to aerobic power, strength, and mood state. We measured peak aerobic power and one-repetition maximum strength along with mood (depression and fatigue), quality of life and carbohydrate intake on 42 women aged 60-77 years. Standard immunological techniques determined natural killer cell count and cytotoxic activity (NKCA), proliferative responses to phytohemaglutinin and OKT(3), various lymphocyte subpopulations (CD3(+), CD3(-)CD19(+), CD56(+), CD4(+), CD8(+), CD56(dim) and CD56(bright)), and markers of activation, maturation, down-regulation and susceptibility to apoptosis (CD25(+), CD28(+), CD45RA(+), CD45RO(+), CD69(+), CD95(+), HLA-DR(+)). Correlations of immune parameters with aerobic power and strength were very similar for absolute and relative immunological data. In the group as a whole, the only correlation with aerobic power was -0.35 (relative CD4(+)CD69(+) count), but in subjects with values <22.6 mL kg(-1)min(-1) correlations ranged from -0.57 (relative CD4(+)CD45RO(+)) to 0.92 (absolute CD56(dim)HLA-DR(+)). In terms of muscle strength, univariate correlation coefficients ranged from -0.34 (relative and absolute CD3(+)CD4(+)CD8(+)) to +0.48 (absolute CD3(+)HLA-DR(+)) and +0.50 (absolute CD8(+)CD45RA(+)CD45RO(+)). Neither NKCA nor lymphocyte proliferation were correlated with aerobic power or muscle strength. Although mood state and quality of life can sometimes be influenced by an individual's fitness level, our multivariate analyses suggested that depression, fatigue and quality of life were more important determinants of immune profile than our fitness measures. Psychological changes associated with aging may have a substantial adverse effect upon the immune system, and immunological function may be enhanced more by addressing these issues than by focusing upon aerobic or resistance training.