First Half Of Twentieth Century Research Articles

Intergenerational transmission of fertility in Spain among cohorts born during the first half of twentieth century

It is known that historically fertility is correlated between generations of the same family. These links tend to be explained either in terms of the biogenetic determinants of reproduction or by the transmission of intra-familial values associated with reproduction and family life. Less is known about the micro-determinants of these links or about the extent to which the progressive modernization of reproductive outcomes over the past century has affected behavior. In this paper, we will address these issues for Spain with data from the Socio-Demographic Survey (SDS) carried out in 1991 and including data on cohorts born between 1900 and 1946. These data enable us to explore the micro determinants of fertility at different points of time during this period. Our results point to the existence of a significant correlation between intergenerational reproductive outcomes that persists and strengthens throughout this period of demographic change. Results confirm the importance of birth order in large family groups where firstborn offspring are more likely to have larger families than subsequent siblings. There is also evidence that the strength of these intergenerational ties increases with the onset of more modern demographic behavior characterized by sharply declining fertility. The results presented here promise to condition future debates on the subject.

Practicing Telemedicines in India

The great use of telecommunication technology propels new healthcare system of telemedicine through which diagnosis as well as treatment can be done in the remote areas. The ancient Greek language explain the terminology of telemedicine in the phrase of distance healing. As per WHO, Telemedicine is the delivery of health-care services, where distance is a critical factor, by all health-care professionals using information and communications technologies for the exchange of valid information for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease and injuries, research and evaluation, and the continuing education of health-care workers, with the aim of advancing the health of individuals and communities. Historically the concept of teleconsultation was evolved in the first half of twentieth century when the data of ECG was communicated through telephone lines, this can be traced as first evidence of this unique healthcare system. Further the introduction of electrical system of telegraph as well as evolution of telephone revolutionized this system of healthcare. when the Technology of telemedicine help both patients as well as service providers in multiple ways involving physicians, surgeons, pharmacists, paramedical staff, IT and electronics engineers, government, hospitals and end user public Location is now a days no problem and therefore there is no limitation of the availability of healthcare facilities to such location or remote location. The biggest role in such development is played by the communication technology which may provide healthcare services to every nook and corner of the location. It can decrease the health staff pressure because in India WHO guidelines ask to maintain the ratio 1:1000 of doctor and Indian public compared to present 0.62:1000 ratio of doctor and public. The great advantage of this system is that in case of epidemic or pandemic like COVID 19 Telemedicine can keep the health staff are well general public free from contagious infection (COVID-19). There are a number of networking communication modes that can be applied, which may improve the patient compliance,dosage regimen can be managed in better fashion thus increase the longevity of person life. Disasters management during pandemics present unique challenges which can be addressed effectively as happened during the lockdown. This technology-based practice can break the infectivity chain of the transmission of communicable diseases This chapter incorporates basic concept of telemedicine, its origin and types, communication technologies, services by telemedicine, types of telemedicine, tools of telemedicine, telemedicine software’s and guidelines related to practicingtelemedicine in reference to Indian context.

Planning Practice in Latin America: The Legacy of the Traveling Urbanists and Other Vertical Dialogues

During the first half of twentieth century, Europe was the world vanguard for urban planning ideas. European urbanists traveled to Latin America, participated in urban plans, influenced local professionals, and had their ideas replicated by secondary sources. This influence transformed not only Latin American cities but also their academic and professional practice of urbanism. First, two items contextualize the discussion: the third part discusses the reality of Latin American largest cities in early 1900s, and the fourth part identifies main traveling urbanists and their trajectories in Latin America. The last part presents a temporal reading of facts and urban trends. The fifth part discusses the legacy of old vertical dialogues and shifts in the relation between Latin America and central countries. Main conclusions are that (1) between Latin America and Europe existed a vertical and almost exclusive dialogue, and (2) recent shifts seem to impair the old model of central–peripheral transfer of urban planning ideas.

THE Anxiety of Authenticity: THE Historical Reception of Broken Blossoms (1919), Shanghai Express (1932) and The Good Earth (1937) in China

This article analyses the authenticity principles connected to Hollywood’s portrayal of China and the Chinese through three important American films screened or banned in China – Broken Blossoms (1919), Shanghai Express (1932), and The Good Earth (1937) – but with a special focus on both the historical reception and censorship of these films within China itself. It is argued that the feeling of (in)authenticity played an important role in Chinese audiences’ appreciation of Hollywood narratives about the Chinese. Rather than focusing on the realistic or unrealistic depiction of the films, it is more effective to consider authenticity as a felt experience of emotional engagement and deeply felt sensuality. The felt authenticity signifies different constructed experiences and views which are rooted in different cultures and societies. The frequent appearance of ‘Chinese’ in American films produced in the first half of twentieth century had a ripple effect that impacted the Chinese public’s own self-perception and self-recognition. The yearning for authenticity – expressed in the form of the government's censorship standards and procedures, as well as widespread protest in Chinese communities domestically and abroad – connected profoundly to the emerging sense of national identity.

Emerging Female Voices and Child Marriage Reforms in Early Twentieth Century

Age long custom of Child Marriage could not be challenged in nineteenth century because neither reformer did have shastric evidences nor organized female voice opposed it, except sporadic cases. The main argument of this paper is that the first half of Twentieth century witnessed active participation of organized women of India, which raised their questions themselves and determined the enactment of the Child Marriage Restraint Act in 1929. Simultaneously, this paper also aims to contradict an idea that towards the end of Nineteenth century women’s question was disappeared from agenda of public debates. I have used Government of India official papers, journals, contemporary books both in Hindi and English.

The "Ancestors' Family Instructions": Authority and Sovereignty in Song China

The "Ancestors' Family Instructions":Authority and Sovereignty in Song China Deng Xiaonan, Christian Lamouroux, and Luo Yinan New Appreciation Deng Xiaonan and Christian Lamouroux, "The 'Ancestors' Family Instructions': Authority and Sovereignty in Song China." JSYS 35 (2005): 79–97. This article presents a new interpretation of the Song literati's culture of practice, which was constituted by their conviction that they preserved the memory of the imperial "Ancestors' Family Instructions," their self-identity as the guardians of these "Instructions" in court politics, and their performative interactions in various historical contexts guided by these imaginative roles. Professors Deng and Lamouroux therefore challenge commonly-held views that take the competition amongst various political actors such as emperors, factions, and bureaucrats as the major theme of Song political life. Instead, the authors successfully revealed the constitutive power of political culture that shaped the content of elites' competition; it also points to the role of culture in directing the changing trajectory of Song elite politics. Deng and Lamouroux's new picture of Song political life portrays literati not as self-centered players of politics who were devoted to pursuing personal goals that were shaped by material interests and beliefs regarding ideal order. Rather, the conflicts and compromises of literati reflect their common recognition of the same cultural framework, known as the "Ancestors' Family Instructions," through which they understood themselves and others. The authors' research therefore reveals these "Instructions" as the hinge on which political life became practical. Even though political life appeared to revolve around personal interests and beliefs, it nevertheless hinged on processes of intersubjective imagination, in which political participants integrated their discrete personal experiences and perceptions with the cultural framework that bestowed meanings upon both the self and other interacting human subjects. Within this new picture, the recurring tensions and conflicts amongst Song literati did not foretell the disintegration of the literati community. On the contrary, it reflected a collective literati imaginary that was shaped by the same cultural framework that coordinated the meanings, norms, and justifications for their actions. This article inherits the academic tradition of Chinese historiography, a tradition that gained prominence in the first half of twentieth century, thanks to such great Chinese historians as Chen Yinke 陳寅恪, Qian Mu 錢穆 and [End Page 133] Deng Guangming 鄧廣銘, who believed that historical research should be an endless intellectual odyssey in which scholars strive to understand different worlds of meaning: not only those of the research objects, but also their own. Moreover, it also establishes a common ground between Chinese historiography and the ontological tradition of European social theory, which views the area of politics not simply as the aggregation of the behavior of individuals who are conceived as bounded and purposive actors, but the processes through which interrelated agents unfolded their understandings of the existential world. After its publication, this work has paved way for a great number of succeeding studies in both Chinese and Anglophone scholarship that have been continuously reshaping the landscape of Song political history. A new way of "understanding" Song history has emerged among Song scholars, who can imagine historical agents' life-streams as flowing side by side with their own, enabling them to search for a Song history that is meaningful to their own age. [End Page 134] luo yinan 羅禕楠 peking university What constraints existed on the power of the emperor in premodern China? This is a question of interest to historians of China as well as our colleagues in other fields, and we offer this research report, a partial translation of an article published in the French journal Annales—Histoire, Sciences sociales in 2004,1 as a preliminary answer. We focus on the development of the concept of the "Ancestors' Family Instructions" (zuzong jiafa 祖宗家法 or zuzong zhi fa 祖宗之法) during the Song dynasty—widely acknowledged to be both the beginning of autocratic rule and the birth of the bureaucratic state. First, we would like to present some definitions of the concept, and then we will locate it within three different historical contexts: the political, the ideological, and the administrative. We conclude with some observations on the role played by the "Ancestors' Instructions" in the making of the bureaucratic state. Many Song texts mention "Ancestors' Family Instructions." The...

Con los nervios de punta: de la medicalización a la psicologización de los quebrantos mentales en el trabajo. Bogotá y Medellín, 1898-1961

En este artículo se analizará el modo en que la neurastenia y la fatiga fueron objetivadas por la medicina dentro del ámbito laboral en las ciudades de Bogotá y Medellín, durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. De ahí la necesidad de tomar como referencia la identificación de los presuntos padecimientos ligados a la esfera del trabajo intelectual y físico. A la reivindicación de los comportamientos frugales para aminorar los efectos de aquellos padecimientos, se le vino a adicionar la creciente psicologización del mundo del trabajo promediando dicha centuria. Aquella psicologización se volvió una herramienta que amplió el espectro de la anormalidad, en medio de la metamorfosis experimentada por el aparato productivo y la diversificación de la estructura laboral a nivel nacional.

Relations of Human Rights Documentations with Constitutional Regulation of Rights

Human right is an old subject, and an endeavor to achieve it has an old historical root. Human beings in their early existence and in early human community, endeavored to achieve their rights and freedom, and this endeavor still continues. The effect of these endeavors led to the upspring of a group of national documents about human rights in their countries. In the first half of twentieth century, humanity set the base of human rights through declarations and international agreements, and humanity get benefit from these rights now. Later, constitutions of countries which have the highest status in the countries, under the effect of these documents, national documents in particular, contained the subject of rights and freedom with regulation of the ways of governing the country. constitutional regulation of rights and freedom is mentioned differently in comparative constitutions.

The Origins of Chinese Nationalism in Twenty-First Century

Chinese nationalism began to rise when the Cold War ended in 1989. During the first two decades of twenty-first century, Chinese nationalism as strong force has impacted Chinese public opinion as well as government decisions to a large extent. In the eyes of Chinese political elites, nationalism is a force for unity that can keep China together as the communism has lost its appeal. This study explores factors which best explain the origins of Chinese nationalism in our era. For this purpose, I utilize qualitative analysis of nationalist discourse and deeds to gauge nationalist sentiment among the contemporary Chinese people and its political elites. The evidence suggests that nationalism in China mainly comes from Chinese great pride in its major economic achievements in recent decades, the perceived injustice and insults done to China when it was dismembered by the imperialist powers in nineteenth and the first half of twentieth centuries, the current provocative moves against the rising China, and the Chinese government’s propaganda campaign.

Korean Intellectuals' Perceptions of the Jews during the First Half of Twentieth Century

Korean Intellectuals' Perceptions of the Jews during the First Half of Twentieth Century

Korean Intellectuals' Perceptions of the Jews during the First Half of Twentieth Century

Korean Intellectuals' Perceptions of the Jews during the First Half of Twentieth Century

Organization Determinants of Physical Culture Evolution in Koszalin Region in 1950–1975

In the nineteenth century and in the first half of twentieth century, the area of Central Pomerania was inhabited primarily by Germans. In the first post-war years, there was a multi-million migration related to the settlement of the so-called Recovered Territories. Rapid development and settlement of the largest number of Poles in the area became one of the most important tasks after the end of hostilities, as a result of which these areas were significantly damaged, therefore there was no housing base for arriving migrants. It was also a significant problem in the organization and creating administrative structures in the field of physical culture management. When the Koszalin Voivodship was founded in 1950 and the administrative provincial authorities of physical culture management were appointed, the Provincial Committee of Physical Culture was created. Organizational structures of physical culture and sport in Koszalin region were formed in accordance with the state policy. In the first half of the 1950s, physical culture in the Koszalin Province experienced a regression. It was not until 1967 that the activities revived in the field of broadly understood physical culture. The County and Municipal Committee of Physical Culture and Tourism activated cooperation with social organizations, e.g. the Society for the Promotion of Physical Culture and district sports associations.

Making China Their “Beat”: A Collective Biography of U.S. Correspondents in China, 1900–1949

What was the social composition of the U.S. correspondents in China during the first half of twentieth century? Borrowing Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of capital and adopting the collective biography approach, this study analyzed the demographic characteristics and career paths of 161 correspondents to illustrate the opportunity structure and its historical variations in the largely unstructured field of foreign correspondence during its formative years. Being a missionary kid, having a journalism education, especially from the Missouri School of Journalism, or being raised in the northeast region with an Ivy League education, were among the kinds of valued social and cultural capital that conferred an advantage in becoming a China correspondent.

Historical gardens and their potential use for proecological development of urban green space, as illustrated by Felin Manor Park in Lublin, Poland

Historical urban parks are particularly valuable in terms of their ecology, as they offer habitats to many valuable flora and fauna. A study was conducted in Felin Manor Park, Lublin, southeastern Poland, dating back to the end of the nineteenth and the first half of twentieth century. The aim of the study was to assess the suitability of this type of urban park for the proecological design of urban green areas that will comply with the legal requirements for historic gardens. The investigation demonstrate that long-living native tree species (e.g., <em>Tilia cordata</em>, <em>Quercus robur</em>, and <em>Fraxinus excelsior</em>) are the best preserved plants in this park. The dendroflora of the park is, however, characterized by a great variety of species flowering between early spring and fall. These reward species ensure continuity of the food base for insects throughout the vegetation season. A floristic inventory facilitated development of a concept for the restoration of the park combining cultural (historical, educational) and ecological functions. <em>Tilia cordata</em> was used for line planting arrangements along the park boundary. It is a component of the alley design along the driveway and is one of the most valuable nectar reward species. The survey allowed the definition of future design guidelines, i.e., the preservation of the historical park structures (formed by long-living native species) and complementation of the park dendroflora with species that are attractive for bees and other insect pollinators. To supplement their food base, it is recommended that a “bee garden” with herbaceous reward plants should be created.

ESCRITOS E OLHARES PLURAIS, VALORES ÉTICOS, POLÍTICOS E ESTÉTICOS NA EDUCAÇÃO DA INFÂNCIA

O artigo tem como objetivo refletir acerca dos escritos jornalísticos, poéticos e educacionais de Cecília Meireles, particularmente, as Crônicas de Educação. A poeta educadora guiada por uma sensibilidade ímpar olhou para a infância, a criança, a família e a escola e teceu considerações e críticas sobre estas várias dimensões da vida, posicionou-se sobre o cenário da educação de maneira arrojada em prol de uma educação ético-política e estética, almejando sensibilizar os órgãos responsáveis pela educação brasileira, defendendo assim, uma educação para as classes populares como saída emancipatória e de transformação das condições sociais, econômicas e políticas do Brasil, na primeira metade do século XX. Investigou-se nesse artigo como as crônicas jornalísticas e os textos poéticos contribuíram para fomentar as relações da criança com a escola e os educadores; sendo a sensibilidade um elemento fundamental nas/das práticas educativas na infância e no processo de sensibilização do imaginário. Optou-se por uma abordagem crítico-educativa sobre a educação da criança e a infância nos textos da escritora Cecília Meireles.

World-development of historical and spiritual that is its event-idea-development as a world of faith

According to modern scientific and philosophical representations, the world is its creation as development. Because of anthroponoospherization, world development appears as a historical and spiritual development. A measure of progressive development are: 1) the completeness of the implementation of legislative tendency (directions) of development, 2) the superiority of the old to new, 3) the increase of consciousness and spiritual factors of development. In the development of society, the historical-spiritual appear to it: 1) degrees, 2) local ways (civilization) actually happen-ideas-development, which are: 1) initial with the stages of anthroposociogenesis, tribal community of collectors and hunters, the clan community of farmers and herders, 2) agrarian society with the stages of the first civilizations of the copper stone age (Ancient Egyptian, Sumerian-Babylonian, Indo, Aegean, Hatto-Smallasian Early Chinese, Ancient American) iron age from the 1st millennium BC of ancient (Middle East, Antique, Ancient Indian and Ancient Chinese) and medieval (Far Eastern, Indian, Austrian, Central Asian, Iranian-Islamic, Eastern Christian and West Christian local civilizations) and so-called industrial society with preindustrialization XVIІІ-mid. ХVІІ century, industrialization the middle of ХVІІ–ХІХ centuries, industrial first half of Twentieth century and, the middle of XX century, the globalization-information stages of development with the corresponding all of them-events-ideas-development. Stages of development are determined by their main direction. Civilizations can be defined as local socio-culturaland organisms that are inherent in the physiognomic unity of distinctive features. In the process of historical development there is a growth of conscious-spiritual factors of development (socio-cultural paradigm), mainly as the implementation of various socio-cultural projects, which prompts the creation of consciously projected, intellectually creative, idea-creative, spiritually-constructed world as it happens-idea- development. Events are actingknowledged as ideas, and ideas are projected as development. All further history of mankind is the deduction and embodiment of consciously-projected ideas. Socio-cultural projects require the realization, and that’s why historical development is somehow dejected, and is carried out as some kind of enthusiasm. Religion - faith in God through the cult, what is the act of consciousness (faith) of world creation (God) through its activation in itself (the cult). The historical-spiritual world-development are as follows: 1) the continuation of the world creation, 2) the belief of realization as a kind of locomotive, because of what 3) religious socio-cultural projects of spiritual world transformation are currently the largest. From the New Times monotheism comes into the secular phase of practicing faith. From the seventeenth century humanity passes to industrial ways of development and to the twentieth century. the world economy is formed, world politics and world spirituality that are from the middle of Twentieth century turn into the globalization-informational period of “the inventive future”, when any social and cultural projects can be implemented. There is a world civilization as a cathedral unity of national cultures. In the field of religious, there is not immorality, but newly-religions as a God's gradual faith. Innovation faith occurs as: 1) ecumenization, 2) secularization, and 3) new secular dynastic theologians. A peculiar “spiritual evaporation” of globalization processes is the maturation of the so-called universal religion. There can be no universal religion, only a universal faith can be. Universal religion is not a separate religion, but the unity of all religions of the world as its spiritual transformation. Universal religion arises as 1) activation of the creative forces of man, 2) the locomotive of socio-cultural projects that require the faith realization, 3) as a social and cultural project for the spiritual transformation of the world (God's reign, etc.). The unity of all religions in the world is currently the most expressed in theistic evolutionism, which in modern universal evolutionism receives a scientific and philosophical justification, where a new process-creative-centric image of the world for its transformation arises. Secular gradual faith passes into the development of the world, world-wide – the consciousness of the world as its development, which is achieved by the event-idea-development. The world of faith appears in three hypostases: 1) as the unity of all religions of the world as its spiritual transformation, 2) the world is not religion, but faith, and 3) acts consciousness of the world as its development. Concentration of the meanings of spiritual uplift form the so-called spiritual republics (Zion, Shambhala, mountainous Jerusalem, etc.) as our antisocial spiritual homeland. World-development of historical-spiritual appears as an intelligent world development (World building).

The Religious Life of the Industrial Working Class in the Czech Lands?

The article focuses on the role of religion among working-class inhabitants of two industrial towns in the Czech lands, Ostrava and Kladno, during the first half of twentieth century. It analyses the enormous conversion movement, the position of new actors of religious life, and the religious behavior of workers. Looking at the history of the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, the study understands religion as one of the constituent factors of society and its historic change. Traditional, new, and nonconformist religious actors appear as active agents in the private and public life of industrial towns. They mobilized workers, young people, and women, and they produced the major arena in which social, cultural, and church history come together.

Analysis of actinometric measurements under all-sky and cloud-free conditions in Cáceres (Spain) for the period 1913–1920

Early daily actinometric and cloud cover data from Cáceres (SW of Spain) were recovered for the period 1913–1920. The task of retrieving and digitising early actinometric data series turn out highly required due to the lack of solar radiation data throughout the first half of twentieth century. Firstly, the Arago actinometer and the procedure employed to record the actinometric data were described in detail. Additionally, in spite of being a short series, trends from recovered actinometric data were analysed. A negative trend of (−0.16 ± 0.03) °C/year was obtained for all-sky conditions, reaching a marked value of (−0.26 ± 0.04) °C/year when cloud-free days were selected in the analysis. Both trends were statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. The Katmai eruption in June 1912 likely caused anomalous low actinometric records in 1913 and 1914. These results suggest a decrease of solar radiation in Cáceres during the second decade of the twentieth century which is in accordance with the final stage of the long-term negative trend in solar radiation data observed at several European sites from late nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century (‘early dimming’).

Women Novelists and their Novels in the First Half of Twentieth Century

Women Novelists and their Novels in the First Half of Twentieth Century

Motherless Tongues: The insurgency of language amid wars of translation by Vicente L. Rafael

Reviewed by: Motherless Tongues: The insurgency of language amid wars of translation by Vicente L. Rafael Marlon James Sales Motherless Tongues: The insurgency of language amid wars of translation By Vicente L. Rafael. Durham: Duke University Press, 2016 Those of us who have been reading Vicente L. Rafael may be tempted to consider his latest book as a sequel to his existing body of work in Philippine translation history. While two of his previous books have focussed on clearly defined periods in the evolution of Filipino literature in Spanish, his latest work delves into multilingualism in the Philippines and beyond, and the many political, social and cultural exigencies that have helped shape it over time. What comes out is an interesting reflection on the role of language in interrogating colonialism and its many refractions in our collective historical imagination, which even those who are unfamiliar with the linguistic situation in the Philippines will appreciate. One such refraction is the concept of the mother tongue, which Rafael subverts as a way of framing this collection of essays. Linguistic maternity has received much attention in postcolonial translation studies because of its association with the constructs of race and identity, and its significance to bigger social issues such as migration, human rights and citizenship. Postcolonial spaces are multilingual spaces where many mother tongues are spoken, often in conditions of uneven privilege. "There is no mother tongue," Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari claim, "only a power takeover by a dominant language within a political multiplicity."1 The issue that postcolonial translation studies ultimately seeks to address therefore is not the mother tongue per se, but rather those conditions that have enabled it to promote inequality. That a particular mother tongue is conflated in some societies with universalising descriptors such as "national language," "official language" and "lingua franca" highlights the entitlement attached to speaking specific languages. It also suggests, as Liesbeth Minnard and Till Dembeck point out, that referring to a language as a mother tongue is at times a convenient way of talking obliquely about racial politics.2 In the postwar Philippines, the ability to speak English—and sound American—is a status symbol, an enduring legacy of the US occupation of the islands following three centuries of Spanish rule. This is a common theme threading through many of Rafael's chapters, which he introduces in the opening pages of his book. Reminiscing about his experiences with multilingualism in the country, he writes that he grew up speaking American English together with other local and foreign languages. Thus does Rafael undermine the image of the monadic mother tongue. He contends that, as with many other Filipinos, "I have no mother tongue, or rather that I have many mother tongues" (5). Readers will realise at this point that the title Motherless Tongues is a provocation underscoring the paradox of one's orphanhood for having too many linguistic mothers. Rafael then links multilingualism to translation by portraying the latter as an aporia: Translation occurs every time multilingual speakers attempt to repress the pluralism of their linguistic heritage in order to express themselves in one hegemonic language. However, such attempts fail once these speakers are confronted with the ideological reductions posed by untranstability, which in Rafael's usage alludes largely to the absence of a direct equivalent of a source-language unit in a particular target language. This intricate (or aporetic, in Rafael's parlance) portrayal of translation calls to mind many previous works in translation studies such as Barbara Cassin's dictionary of untranslatables, Emily Apter's thesis against World Literature, and Ronit Ricci's untranslatability of translation. Another major theme covered in the book is the relationship between war and translation, which Rafael develops in three parts. Part I traces the different uses of translation in the Philippines from the Filipino revolution against Spain in the late nineteenth century to the so-called EDSA II revolution in 2001 that ousted the then president of the Philippines, Joseph Ejercito Estrada. From the ecclesiastical documents in the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries to the 1898 proclamation of Philippine independence from Spain, from the American public school system in the first half of twentieth century to the use of...