Fired Clay Bricks Research Articles

Economic impacts of large dams on downstream brickmaking in developing countries

Large dams have positive and negative impacts, including disrupting brickmaking on the floodplains downstream due to flow regulation and sediment reduction, affecting the supply of essential construction material, notably in developing countries. In this study, we introduce an analytical framework to assess the economywide effects of large dams on downstream brickmaking, focusing on Traditional Fired Clay Brick (TFCB). The framework includes three steps: characterizing the impacts on river flow and sediment load using river system modeling and secondary data, understanding the role of TFCB production in the economy based on survey and economic data, and quantifying the economywide impacts of changes in TFCB production using dynamic computable general equilibrium modeling. We demonstrate the functionality of the approach by conducting a case study of the impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Sudanese economy due to changes in TFCB production by comparing two scenarios: “with GERD” and “no GERD.” Results show that Sudan’s accumulated (2023–2050) discounted (at 0.5% annually) Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at factor cost would decline by US$ 6 billion (−0.38%) due to a reduction in TFCB production. Consumer flexibility regarding brick types and the ability of alternative brick sources to fill the demand gap are key determinants of the impacts.

In and out of plane behaviour of TRM strengthened heritage masonry elements

This paper presents detailed experimental and analytical investigations into the influence of textile-reinforced mortar (TRM) strengthening on the in-plane and out-of-plane response of unreinforced heritage masonry (URM) elements. The URM wall elements consist of hydraulic lime mortar and fired-clay bricks, and the TRM reinforcement employs mortar-embedded layers of alkali age-resistant glass meshes. Apart from the material characterisation tests on mortars, bricks, and TRM coupons, the experimental programme includes axial compression tests on wallettes, diagonal compression tests on square panels, as well as four-point bending tests on rectangular panels. In the latter, the bending loads are applied either parallel or perpendicular to the bed joints in order to assess the joint layout effect on the behaviour. With the aid of digital image correlation, the in-plane and out-of-plane enhancement in stiffness, strength, and ductility of the masonry elements due to the TRM strengthening is quantified, while the TRM influence on the crack patterns and failure modes is also examined. The results show that the number of mesh layers has a significant influence on the behaviour for the out-of-plane bending tests but plays a less pronounced role in the in-plane shear cases. Modified analytical models for the in-plane shear and out-of-plane bending capacities of reinforced masonry elements, of the type examined in this study, are also proposed and assessed alongside existing codified procedures. The application of current code provisions results in overly conservative estimates. In contrast, the proposed analytical approaches for determining the in-plane and out-of-plane strength provide close prediction of the experimental capacities from this study as well as those from a wider collated database of previous tests, and are therefore suitable for implementation in practical assessment and rehabilitation guidelines.

Experimental study of electroosmosis and (Cl-) diffusion in fired-clay bricks

Electroosmosis (EO) is considered as a base for methods in drying moist masonry. EO and the other transport mechanisms, namely electromigration and diffusion, that can influence EO in the bricks, were studied in four Danish bricks with different manufacturing years and locations. Brick cubes were cut from each brick type and then saturated in NaCl 0.1 M solution. A cell with four electrodes was used to measure the electroosmotic permeability coefficient using a phenomenological approach based on non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The effective diffusion coefficient for chloride and electromigration coefficient were calculated. Results showed that the EO flux obtained in the bricks did not follow either the magnitude of zeta potential or ionic content present in the bricks. It was observed that there was a correlation between the EO coefficient and the porous structure of the brick, especially with the pore connectivity, since the bricks with higher pore connectivity and, therefore, with higher effective diffusion coefficient had a higher electroosmotic coefficient.

Valorization of Fired Clay Bricks Debris (grog) Using Egg Shell and Coconut Shell in the Synthesis of an Ecological Compressed Earth Blocks: Microstructure and Engineering Properties

The aim of this work is to valorize fired clay brick debris (grog, CH) by using egg and coconut shells in the production of eco-friendly compressed earth bricks for sustainable building materials. Samples were cured at ambient temperature (23 ± 3 °C) and obtained by altering different percentages of (CO) and (CN) at 13%, 26% and 40%, respectively; while another mix design of calcined eggshell and coconut shell were incorporated together into the grog powder. Some comprehensive physico-mechanical properties such as water absorption (WA), bulk density (BD), apparent porosity (AP), moisture content (MC), compressive strength (σ) and elastic modulus (EM) were carried out. Chemical composition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Fourier Transformed Infra-red (FT-IR), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were studied. Results show an increase in compressive strength with increasing percentages of calcined eggshell, from 87CH 13CO, 74CH 26CO, 60CH 40CO as 1.38, 2.70, 3.88 MPa, respectively. For 87CH 13CN, 74CH 26CN, 60CH 40CN coconut shell addition show an increase in the percentages of compressive strength. The bulk density decreases with the increase in percentages of calcined eggshell and coconut shell and the percentage of grog decrease. Linear correlation equtions between mechanical properties and mix proportion were determined. SEM micrograph shows a dense microstructure with an agglomeration on the structure. Results obtained indicates an improvement in the engineering properties due to the addition of eggshell waste and these improved properties are suitable to enhance sustainable eco-friendly building materials.

Load bearing geopolymer from agro-waste and its energy-environmental- economic (E3) performance: Application through building information modeling

Agro-waste geopolymers are being significantly researched as sustainable substitutes to traditional construction materials for structural performance. However, a thorough assessment of their energy, environment, and economic (E3) performance is still questioned to facilitate in-situ building applications. This study first opts for a novel method of pressure catalysis for rice husk ash (RHA)-based geopolymers to enhance physico-mechanical performance with a low alkali activator dose. Afterward, the thermal conductivity of the optimized specimen was evaluated experimentally. Then, to assess its practical application, an E3 performance investigation was conducted on masonry brick/blocks as a pioneering approach for geopolymers. Distinct wall scenarios were simulated using Building Information Modeling (BIM) in a digital residential building. The experimental results showed that geopolymers with 50 % RHA, catalyzed under 20 MPa pressure, achieved 26.8 MPa compressive strength, lower density (1510 kg/m3), reduced water absorption (6.8 %), and 0.552 W/(m·K) thermal conductivity, outperforming traditional fired-clay brick and concrete block. The BIM analysis revealed that walls with RHA material had 53 % lower energy consumption and 30 − 41 % lesser CO2 emissions, respectively. Despite the higher cost, the RHA block has advantages as a masonry unit due to a high economic index. The significant energy and environmental gains suggest the potential for optimizing the production process of RHA-based geopolymer to enhance cost-effectiveness and amplify benefits.

Impact of water content and salts on the mechanical properties of masonry materials used in historic structures

Abstract The protection of built cultural heritage is increasingly important due to climate change. Given that flooding is one of the most serious threats to the conservation of heritage objects, the goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of water and soluble salts on the mechanical strength of materials commonly used in old structures. An experimental analysis was conducted by wetting several types of conventional building materials (such as stone, lime mortar, and fired-clay brick), each characterised by distinct mechanical properties and porous structure. The impact of contamination with three types of soluble salts commonly found in historic buildings was also assessed. The results showed that the level of water saturation can have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of all the tested materials. In some cases, the sample heterogeneity surpassed the effect of water content on the mechanical behaviour. Brick and stone samples showed a similar trend in the strength behaviour. Brick had a flexural strength decrease of around 15% after 7 days of submersion in water and also after storage in an environment with high relative humidity. Mortar mixtures were more sensitive to the effect of water and salt solutions compared to stone and bricks. One-cycle of salt contamination followed by drying increased the mechanical strength of the tested materials.

Extraction of Valuable Components in the Process of Recycling of Technogenic Materials of Alumina Production

In the process of recycling man-made resource-saving additives into alumina raw materials, waste fireclay refractory bricks used for lining rotating furnaces and other thermal units were tested. A sufficiently high level of aluminum oxide extraction from fireclay lining has been experimentally confirmed. It has been established that when more than 95 000 tons of stored refractory fireclay brick waste is involved in the technological process, savings on a natural raw material resource are achieved: about 56 700 tons of nepheline ore.

Influence of Cassava Peels Biosolid Addition on the Technological Properties, Thermal Performance, and Microstructural Characteristics of Fired Clay Bricks

Influence of Cassava Peels Biosolid Addition on the Technological Properties, Thermal Performance, and Microstructural Characteristics of Fired Clay Bricks

Enhancing the Thermal and Energy Performance of Clay Bricks with Recycled Cultivated Pleurotus florida Waste

The development of energy-efficient and sustainable building materials is imperative to reduce energy consumption in the construction sector. This study addresses both the applied problem of increased solar heat gain and decreased indoor thermal comfort, as well as the scientific problem of reducing the thermal conductivity of clay bricks. It investigates the incorporation of recycled spent mushroom materials, consisting of Pleurotus florida mycelia and rice husk waste, as a novel additive in the production of fired clay bricks (FCBs) to enhance thermal insulation properties. The developed bricks were utilized in an optimized wall design for a residential building in New Cairo, Egypt. The wall design is created using energy modeling software, including Honeybee, Ladybug, Climate Studio, and Galapagos. The results demonstrate that an optimal waste content of 15% and a firing temperature of 900 °C yield the best thermal performance. Compared to traditional FCB walls, the new design incorporating the florida waste additive significantly improves thermal comfort, as indicated by a lower predicted mean vote and predicted percentage of dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the developed walls contribute to a reduction in CO2 emissions of 6% and a decrease in total energy consumption of 38.8%. The incorporation of recycled florida waste offers a sustainable approach to enhancing standard brick fabrication processes. This work highlights the promise of agricultural waste valuation for the development of eco-friendly and energy-efficient building materials. Future research should explore the mechanical strength, acoustics, cost–benefit analysis, and field implementation of the developed walls, thereby addressing both the scientific and applied aspects of the problem.

Seismic performance of ternary composite geopolymer recycled concrete columns: Experimental study and modeling

In order to achieve seismic-resistant structures cast from green building materials, a new kind of column, ternary composite geopolymer concrete with recycled aggregates containing recycled fireclay brick aggregates (GRA-RFBAC) column, was proposed in this paper. The ternary binder material in GRA-RFBAC was produced by the combination of industrial by-products (ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), recycled fireclay brick powder (RFBP), and fly ash (FA)) and alkali-activated solution. Cyclic loading tests of five reinforced GRA-RFBAC columns, each with a shear-to-span ratio of 3.07, were conducted to investigate the seismic performance. The influence of the recycled aggregate containing recycled fireclay brick aggregate (RA-RFBA) replacement ratio, stirrup spacing, and axial compression ratio on the seismic performance of GRA-RFBAC columns was discussed. The results indicated that all specimens showed similar flexural failure modes under cyclic loading. The first cracking of concrete occurred within the drift ratio range of 0.18%–0.41%, the failure drift ratio varied from 3.27% to 4.11%, and the peak load of the specimens ranged from 237.50 kN to 288.87 kN. Although increasing the RA-RFBA replacement ratio led to a decrease in both the bearing capacity and lateral stiffness of the columns, the GRA-RFBAC columns showed comparable or even better seismic performance than Portland cement concrete columns. Moreover, a prediction model for the skeleton curve of GRA-RFBAC columns was proposed and verified by comparing the prediction results with the test results.

Effects of Wastewater Sludge Addition on Fired Clay Bricks: Enhancing Performance and Sustainable Construction Practices

This study explores the impact of incorporating wastewater sludge into fired clay bricks to improve their performance and promote sustainable construction. Physical, mechanical, and environmental properties of the sludge-amended bricks are investigated to assess their suitability as an alternative construction material. Lab tests are conducted to characterize the sludge and clay, and brick samples with varying sludge content are produced. Physical properties such as water absorption, are analyzed to determine the influence of sludge addition on the bricks' structural characteristics. Mechanical tests, including compressive and flexural strength evaluations, assess the performance of the sludge-amended bricks compared to traditional clay bricks. Additionally, environmental aspects are considered to evaluate the sustainability of the sludge-amended bricks. Life cycle assessment and carbon footprint analysis quantify the environmental benefits and drawbacks associated with their production and use. The findings of this study contribute to the knowledge of sustainable construction materials by exploring the potential utilization of wastewater sludge in fired clay brick production.

Manufacturing of Fired Clay Bricks for Internal Walls with Dolomite Residue as a Secondary Material

Alternative materials need to be mapped, characterized, and valued in order to reduce clay usage. A study was conducted on the utilization of waste dolomite material from a mirror manufacturing factory in the production of bricks where the factory disposes 2500 tons of dolomite waste annually. Dolomite residue was mixed with clay raw material in various mass ratios of 90/10, 87.5/12.5, 85/15, and 82.5/17.5 wt%, extruded with proper moisture content, dried at 110 °C, and fired at 1000 °C and 1100 °C. The addition of dolomite resulted in an efflorescence on the surface of the bricks while also providing thermal insulation advantages and higher fire resistance. The addition of dolomite allowed for an increase in firing temperature to 1100 °C, which was initially not possible due to the melting characteristics of the clay. Dolomite also decreased the density of the bricks, which is crucial in order to decrease the dead load in structures. The produced bricks are intended for internal wall applications because of the efflorescence on the surface of the bricks. Overall, the addition of dolomite improved thermal conductivity and density, and other characteristics also showed suitable results.

Effects of Fe2O3/SiO2 Molar Ratios in the Fe-Silica on the Compressive Strengths and Microstructural Properties of Geopolymer Materials Derived from Waste Fired Clay Brick and Metakaolin

Effects of Fe2O3/SiO2 Molar Ratios in the Fe-Silica on the Compressive Strengths and Microstructural Properties of Geopolymer Materials Derived from Waste Fired Clay Brick and Metakaolin

Incorporation of Steel Fibers to Enhance Performance of Sustainable Concrete Made with Waste Brick Aggregates: Experimental and Regression-Based Approaches

Each year, an enormous amount of construction waste is produced worldwide. The reuse of construction waste in construction works is a sustainable solution. The present research work utilized recycled brick aggregates in the production of concrete. The resulting concrete exhibited substandard splitting tensile, flexural, and compressive properties. Steel fibers were used to improve these substandard properties of recycled brick aggregate concrete. The volume fractions of 1%, 2%, and 3% for steel fibers were mixed in concrete, whereas recycled brick aggregates were obtained from solid fired-clay bricks, hollow fired-clay bricks, and cement–clay interlocking bricks. The compressive strength was enhanced by up to 35.53% and 66.67% for natural and recycled brick aggregate concrete, respectively. Strengthened flexural specimens demonstrated up to 8765.69% increase in the energy dissipation. Specimens strengthened with steel fibers showed substantially improved splitting tensile, flexural, and compressive responses. Separate equations were proposed to predict the peak compressive strength, strain at peak compressive strength, elastic modulus, and post-peak modulus of recycled brick aggregate concrete. The proposed regression equations were utilized in combination with an existing compressive stress–strain model. A close agreement was observed between experimental and predicted compressive stress–strain curves of recycled brick aggregate concrete.

Improvement of the performance characteristics, fire resistance, anti-bacterial activity, and aggressive attack of polymer‐impregnated fired clay bricks-fly ash-composite cements

The research addressed the creation of various composite cement mixes by replacing 40 % of OPC with industrial solid wastes, Fly ash (FA), and/or Fired clay bricks (FCB) at different water/powder (w/p) ratios. The composite cement pastes were subjected to polymer-impregnation process, using methyl-methacrylate (MMA) monomer and benzoyl peroxide as an initiator. The physico-mechanical and chemical characteristics of the polymer-impregnated specimens, such as compressive strength, bulk density, total porosity, and polymer load, were examined. The findings showed that, as compared to neat pastes (PF1, PF2, and PF3), the compressive strength (CS) of mixes (PFH1, PFH2, and PFH3) rose considerably after 3 months of hydration by 10.53 %, 12.82 %, and 28.85 %, respectively. Additionally, mix PFH1 with a water/powder (w/p) ratio of 0.35 exhibited the greatest bulk density value (2.215 g/cm3) and the lowest total porosity percentage (12.72 %). Data demonstrated that polymer-impregnation is efficacious to strengthen constructions subjected to high temperatures and aggressive salt attacks. The study additionally revealed that, when thermally treated at 200, 400, and 600 °C, respectively, the CS of PFH1 paste increased by 1.44 %, 1.78 %, and 1.48 % after 14 days of curing, but increased by 10.85 %, 5.20 %, and 7.89 % at curing time of 28 days. Likewise, when CS was compared to that before to polymer-impregnation up to three months, it grew by 48.53 % following immersion in 5%-MgSO4 solutions but increased by 13.49 % after immersion in 5%-MgCl2 solutions.Moreover, the composite with a water/powder ratio of 0.45 demonstrated remarkable anti-bacterial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. In conclusion, the study shows that the compressive strength, antibacterial activity, fire resistance, and resistance to aggressive attacks of the composites are all improved by MMA polymer impregnation.

Recycling of fine fraction of spent foundry sands into fireclay bricks

Recycling of fine fraction of spent foundry sands into fireclay bricks

Design development of coal-based fly ash geopolymer brick using orthogonal array design of experiment

ABSTRACT The world produces billions of fired-clay bricks annually, but their manufacturing process adversely affects the environment. The present article investigates the alternative and sustainable approach for manufacturing coal-based fly ash geopolymer bricks by L9 orthogonal array design of experiment. Three factors and three levels were considered against a single response. The physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of bricks were evaluated and reported in the paper. The optimal ratio to produce fly ash geopolymer brick was 12 Molarity (M) NaOH solution, 2.5 alkaline solution ratio (ASR), and 60°C curing temperature (CT). The experiment’s confirmation and prediction were made and found within the limit. The significance of different levels of factors in enhancing the strength of brick specimens was analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) through a General Linear Model. The results indicated that Molarity, ASR, and CT were the crucial factors in improving the strength of the brick specimens. Moreover, to investigate the morphology, mineralogy, phase structure, and thermal resistance of the brick specimens, microstructural properties such as Field Emission Scanning Electron microscopy (FESEM) – Energy dispersive spectra (EDS), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) were carried out and reported in the paper.

Selection of eco-friendly alternative brick for sustainable development; A study on Technical, Economic, Environmental and Social feasibility

The pursuit of sustainable development has become increasingly important in addressing the challenges of environmental degradation and resource depletion. The construction industry accounts for significant global resource consumption and pollution. The study aims to investigate the selection of alternative bricks for sustainable development. Social, Economic, Environmental and Technical feasibility was studied to identify the best alternative brick. Five different bricks, i.e., Fired clay brick (FCB), Fly ash cement brick (FACB), Fly ash geopolymer brick (FAGB), Recycled concrete waste geopolymer brick (RCWB) and recycled brick waste geopolymer brick (RBWB), were developed and their technical and environmental impacts were studied. A life cycle analysis (LCA) of one brick was carried out, and seven impacts were studied and reported in this paper. Multi-criteria decision-making methodology (MCDM) was used to select the best brick. In addition, the microstructural properties of recycled geopolymer brick were investigated to study the morphology and mineralogy of the brick’s mixes. Sustainability Index (SI) indicates that fired bricks contribute a higher environmental impact per compressive strength in comparison with alternative bricks. According to the Analytical Hierarchy process (AHP), RBWB is the preferred choice with an overall weight of 0.22, followed by fly ash cement brick (0.217). The mineral resource scarcity (MRS) of 82–87 % can be reduced if alternative recycling waste materials were used in production of brick.

A Study of Performance of Compressed Earth Brick Incorporation with Waste Fire Clay Brick as a Filler

This study examines the use of waste fire clay brick as a filler in compressed earth brick production. The purpose of this study is to determine the compressive strength and water absorption of the compressed earth brick incorporation with waste fire clay brick as a filler. The optimum amount of waste fire clay to utilize as a filler is also being studied. A total of 72 compressed earth bricks were produced with the brick size of 125 mm x 250 mm x 100 mm which consist of a mix of sand, soil and cement with mix proportion of 1:4:4. A few tests were conducted which are compressive strength test and water absorption test. The waste fire clay bricks were utilized in this study and replace by volume fraction percentage of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% while 0% is set as the control. The findings obtained show that the compressive strength of the bricks was increasing. The percentage of water absorption were decreasing along with the increases of percentage of waste fire clay brick as a filler.

Sustainable Use of Raw Sand Residue in Production of Fired Clay Bricks

Sustainable Use of Raw Sand Residue in Production of Fired Clay Bricks