Fired Clay Bricks Research Articles

Quality assessment of bricks produced in Chitwan District, central Nepal

Based on the physical, mechanical, and mineralogical properties of fire clay bricks from different brick industries of the Chitwan District, the quality of bricks was determined. The specific objective of this study was to assess the characteristics and comparison of bricks produced from different kilns. Both desk study and field study was carried out for this purpose. Parameters such as dimension, hardness, soundness, and impact were studied in the field for twenty brick samples obtained from each brick industry. Water absorption, apparent porosity, bulk density, and compressive strength tests were carried out in the laboratory, encompassing high and low quality of samples. Additionally, seven types of bricks were manually crafted using clay from those industries. For mineralogical analysis, XRD was carried out on seven brick samples each from seven different brick industries. IS standard was followed for various testing. The dimension test results showed that none of the samples meet the standard. Similarly, the laboratory test result showed that the bulk density of each brick sample increased with increasing compressive strength and decreasing water absorption capacity and apparent porosity. XRD analysis has identified mineral phases like quartz, hematite, and berlinite. Thus, this research tries to provide valuable insights into brick quality, strength and potential applications.

A Viable Solution for Industrial Waste Ash: Recycling in Fired Clay Bricks

A Viable Solution for Industrial Waste Ash: Recycling in Fired Clay Bricks

Investigation of Indoor Air Quality by Incorporating Sewage Sludge Waste into Fired Clay Brick

Generally, the production of sewage sludge waste has increased due to rapid growth of the population. Due to that, the disposal method has become crucial issues nowadays. Therefore, this research focuses on the investigation of indoor air quality of fired clay brick incorporating with sewage sludge. The bricks were incorporated with 0% and 5% of two type of sewage sludge and fired at 1050°C with heating rates 1°C/min. The experiment of Indoor Air Quality was obtained by measuring gases emissions of total volatile organic compound (TVOC), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), formaldehyde (HCHO) and particulate matter (PM10) and were compared with Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality requirement standard. From the result shows that by incorporation of 5% of sewage sludge into fired clay brick complied with the standard requirement for building material usage with no negative effect to the environment. As the conclusions, the use of sewage sludge as clay replacement reduces the waste disposal in landfills and produce the low-cost building materials.

NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR FEEDING BLACKSMITH INGOTS

Purpose. To make a comparative calculation of the geometric parameters of overfills for blacksmith ingots according to traditional and experimental technology using modern heat-insulating products – domestically produced cross-bars, one of the components of which is paper.
 Research methods. Proven engineering methods of calculations of overflows for ingots and castings, based on the experience of domestic and foreign foundries, as well as our own practical experience and scientific research.
 Results. The calculations of the size of overburden (head) for nine ingots (weigh from 1 to 15 tons) conventionally divided into three groups by design and execution. All parts – the pourer, the through tray and the overflow attachment are made separately, for the ingots of the first group. Assembled, these elements form a casting mold, which is installed on a pallet (2- or 4- place) and filled with a siphon through the central one. According to the current technology, the castings of the first group were lined with the usual molding mixture with liquid glass, sealing in the space between the model and the case of the casting attachment, followed by thermal drying. For drains of the second and third groups, the spouts are also through, pouring – with a siphon on a pallet. The overflow attachment is also removable, it was lined with fireclay bricks and then dried. Structurally, all ingots represented a pressed cone with an upward expansion and a wavy side surface, the bottom part of the ingot represented a pressed cone with an upward expansion and a smooth side surface, the overflow – a pressed cone with an upward narrowing and a smooth side surface.
 Scientific novelty. The vast majority of cases, using cross-bars, the estimated efficiency coefficient of the overfill is 0.28, which made it possible to significantly reduce the size of the overfill and obtain a significant saving of liquid metal for each casting or ingot, was established. For conventional technologies traditionally used in the practice of making blacksmith ingots, the coefficient of effectiveness is 0.19 (for a combined form: the sand part of the form for the overfill and the metal part for the working part of the ingot) and 0.11...0.14 – for a completely sand form.
 Practical value. A method of calculating overfills under the lining with their modern heat-insulating products – cross-bars – has been developed. Due to the favorable thermophysical properties of the material of the cross-bars, it is possible to reduce the size of overflows and, thereafter, reduce the consumption of liquid metal. The use of cross-bars instead of the above-mentioned technologies also significantly improves sanitary and hygienic conditions and a productivity at the site of the preparation of overfills for pouring. New power supply technologies and constructions of overflow extensions for the cross-bars, which have been in operation for about 6 years (the first group) and 3 years (the second and third groups), have been developed.

Potential Use of Water Treatment Sludge as Partial Replacement for Clay in Eco-Friendly Fired Clay Bricks

The traditional production process of clay bricks involves the extraction of significant amounts of raw materials and consumes considerable energy, leading to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and environmental degradation. Using environmentally friendly materials in the construction industry has become an attractive alternative for mitigating sustainability issues. One such alternative is incorporating waste materials, such as water treatment sludge (WTS), into clay brick production. This research aims to assess the viability of using WTS as a replacement for conventional clay in fired clay brick production, thereby mitigating environmental pollution. Five distinct mixtures were created, with WTS replacing clay at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80% ratios. The mechanical properties and durability of the produced bricks were analyzed through various tests, such as Atterberg limits, optimum water content, unconfined compression, apparent porosity, compressive strength, flexural strength, density, water absorption, and efflorescence. The results demonstrated that as WTS content increased, Atterberg limits and apparent porosity increased. The bulk density, compressive strength, and bending capacity of the specimens were found to decrease as the WTS replacement ratio increased. Additionally, moderate efflorescence was observed in samples with higher sludge ratios.

Investigation of Wastes Plastic and Glass to Enhance Physical - Mechanical Properties of Fired Clay Brick

Abstract Around the world, large amounts of plastic and glass waste have been collected. This work is given as a way to reduce this material. This paper aims to investigate how fired clay bricks' physical and mechanical properties are affected by plastic/glass (P/G) powder. It is used as a replacement for clay, varying the plastic/glass content 00/20, 05/15, 10/10, 15/05, and 20/00 weight %. The ratio of soil to water remains constant 0.3. The maximum temperature is presented after three fire phases. The temperatures are 300 °C for the first, 600 °C for the second, and 900 °C for the third. Results for the physical properties showed an increase in the water absorption of clay brick specimens as the plastic content increased; in addition, efflorescence was increased with plastic powder. However, the density and firing shrinkage decrease with plastic quantity. Also, the experimental results showed a decrease in water absorption and efflorescence when the glass powder was increased. While the density is higher when glass powder is 20 %. According to the findings on mechanical properties, clay brick samples with higher plastic powder content 20 % displayed a decrease in compressive strength and flexural bending strength, i. e. the mechanical properties (compressive and flexural strengths) are increased with the increased

Characteristics of Fired Clay Brick with Added Dolomite Powder

Characteristics of Fired Clay Brick with Added Dolomite Powder

Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Incorporating Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Bottom Ash as a Partial Replacement for Fine Aggregates

This research explores the potential of using municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash (MSWIBA) as a partial replacement for fine aggregate and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) as a stabilizer in the production of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEBs). The study investigates the effect of varying levels of cement content (ranging from 0% to 10%) and MSWIBA content (ranging from 0% to 25%) on the strength and durability of CSEBs. The strength characteristics of CSEBs were evaluated through tests such as wet and dry compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and stress–strain behavior, while durability was tested through wetting–drying cyclic tests. The results indicated that CSEB blocks made with 20% MSWIBA content and 10% cement were able to fulfill strength criteria. Additionally, using these blocks could result in cost savings of 8% during construction when compared to using fired clay bricks (FCB). Furthermore, varying the cement content while maintaining a constant proportion of MSWIBA showed a significant change in the stress–strain behavior and a cost analysis performed for CSEBs stabilized with the optimal quantity of MSWIBA-OPC combination showed that they can be a viable alternative to conventional earth blocks, providing an eco-friendly, sustainable, and cost-effective solution for construction initiatives.

Compression and Bond Properties of Fired Clay Brick Masonry with Cocopeat Blended Binding Mortar

The production of agricultural, industrial, and demolition trash increases along with global population growth and industrial expansion. They endanger the environment when they are not properly recycled, repurposed, or disposed of. Cocopeat is one such agricultural waste. The use of cocopeat in binder cement is urged to support sustainable construction methods. Because it is seen as trash and discarded in landfills. Cocopeat is an environmentally friendly by-product which can be got during the coconut fibre extraction process. The current study investigates the strength properties of masonry built with binding mortar that incorporates cocopeat as opposed to traditional cement-sand mortar. The mortar prepared with four different integrations of cocopeat as sand replacement of 0, 4, 6 and 8% by weight was used for masonry. Fresh properties of cocopeat binding mortar and their effect on the mechanical characteristics of masonry were investigated. The test results revealed that the mechanical characteristics of masonry were enhanced with increased cocopeat content in the mortar.

Transformation of Physical Characteristics in Fired Clay Bricks by Adopting Waste-based Fluxing Agent

The current practices in the recent development of fired clay brick (FCB) by adopting waste materials have tremendously reduced the usage of the primary source of FCB, which is clay soil (CS). In this study, the main objective is to reduce the utilisation of CS as the main component in the FCB-making process. Other waste materials such as soda lime silica (SLS) glass bottles, and sea shells (SS) were also added into the precursor admixtures. The admixtures containing CS, SLS and SS were mixed according to the empirical formula of (1-x)[40SLS - 60CS]: x[SS] = 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 wt.%. A batch of 40 g mixture was prepared, and 21% water was added. The admixtures were mixed, moulded into a rectangular brick shape, and dried before the sintering process at 850 °C. The physical properties of the FCB were investigated as a function of the SS content in the form of apparent density, linear shrinkage, loss of ignition and plasticity. As a result, the apparent density and loss of ignition of the FCB increased from 1.91 gcm-3 to 2.31 gcm-3 and 10.60 % to 20.81%, respectively. The linear shrinkage and plasticity percentage decreased from 2.50% to 2.27% and 11.01% to 8.70% with an increase of SS content. This study has uncovered the above findings, and has demonstrated a promising discovery of the SS as a possible substitute in FCB.

Compressive Strength of Fired Clay Bricks Incorporated with Ceramic Sludge Industry

Sludge is created during a variety of industrial processes, including industrial ceramics. Considering sludge waste is often disposed of in landfills, the expense of treating sludge waste is becoming uneconomical, and landfill area is diminishing. The industrial ceramics sludge has been identified as a potential alternative ingredient in making bricks. In this research, the optimum percentage of ceramic industry sludge incorporation with fired clay is determined according to its physical properties in order to improved compressive strength in fired clay brick. From the result shows that by incorporation of 30% of ceramic sludge into fired clay brick complied with the British Standard (BS) requirement and Eco-Labelling criteria in SIRIM ECO 023:2016 for building material usage. Therefore, ceramic sludge can be material for brick production with appropriate mix and design and as an alternative substitution of reasonable material that offers eco-friendly disposal method.

Experimental and Numerical Study of Mechanical Behaviour of Fired Clay Bricks after Exposure to High Temperatures

Experimental and Numerical Study of Mechanical Behaviour of Fired Clay Bricks after Exposure to High Temperatures

DETERMINATION OF THE DYNAMIC YOUNG'S MODULUS AND POISSON'S RATIO OF BRITTLE MATERIALS

The article describes the development of a modification of the Kolsky method used for testing brittle materials at splitting. The scheme of the experiment involves the application of a dynamic load along diametrically opposite generatrices of the cylindrical surface of the test specimen. At the same time, it is in a biaxial stressed state and fracture into two halves from the action of tensile stresses. The method is based on the assumption that the material under test behaves elastically under equilibrium deformation of the specimen. This modification is proposed to be used to determine the dynamic Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. The derivation of relations for calculating the indicated mechanical characteristics based on Hooke's law using experimental possibilities is given. Approbation of the proposed scheme for determining elastic constants was carried out when testing specimens of fireclay brick in the Hopkinson split bar system. The deformation impulses of measuring bars were recorded with the help of tensometry to assess the forces acting on the sample and calculate the stresses arising in its center. Deformations of the central part of the specimen were determined using digital image correlation technology. The obtained graphs of stresses and strains versus time had a different time step using the optical method in combination with tensometry. The arrays of the obtained stress and strain values were reduced to a single and constant time interval up to the moment of specimen failure using linear interpolation to process the experimental data based on the derived formulas. The study made it possible to construct graphs of the dynamic Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio versus time at the initial stage of specimen loading and to determine the average values of these elastic mechanical characteristics.

Mechanical Properties of Fireclay Bricks from Binaliw Clay

Binaliw clay, considered to be local waste from crushing and quarrying operations, was utilized to produce fireclay bricks. The chemical and mineralogical composition of the raw material were determined through various tests. Clay samples were prepared by milling, sieving, molding, drying, and sintering from 8000C to 11000C at 1000C intervals for 2 hours. Mechanical properties such as cold crushing strength, volume firing shrinkage, apparent porosity, and bulk density were identified through the appropriate ASTM standards. It was found out that the aforementioned properties, except apparent porosity, increased with increasing temperature- apparent porosity decreased on the contrary. The polymorphic transformations of kaolin and quartz to mullite and cristobalite supported the trends of the mechanical properties at increasing temperatures. However, the values attained in this study were ineligible for classification according to ASTM C27-98 due to the values being lower than the stipulated requirement. Nevertheless, the researchers believe that through a refinement of the manufacturing processes and an addition of additives, Binaliw clay could be a feasible raw material for the production of fireclay bricks.

Utilization of Limestone to Effect on Physical - Mechanical Properties of Fired Clay Brick

Abstract Limestone wastes have accumulated in large quantities in countries all over the world. To reduce this materials this work is presented. The goal of this paper is to study the influence of limestone powder on the physical and mechanical of fired clay bricks. It is as replacement of clay, varying the limestone content 5, 10, 15 and 20 wt %. The water / soil ratio is constant 0.3. Three stages of firing are presented to achieve the maximum temperature. The first one is 300 °C and the second one is 600 °C and the last one is 900 °C. Results for the physical properties are showed an increasing of water absorption of clay brick specimens with the limestone content increased, in addition the efflorescence is increased. However, the density and firing shrinkage are decreased with limestone quantity. For the mechanical properties, the results indicate that the clay brick specimens with higher limestone 20 %, showed a decrease in compressive strength and flexural bending strength.

Exploration of the X-ray Dark-Field Signal in Mineral Building Materials.

Mineral building materials suffer from weathering processes such as salt efflorescence, freeze–thaw cycling, and microbial colonization. All of these processes are linked to water (liquid and vapor) in the pore space. The degree of damage following these processes is heavily influenced by pore space properties such as porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity. X-ray computed micro-tomography (µCT) has proven to be a valuable tool to non-destructively investigate the pore space of stone samples in 3D. However, a trade-off between the resolution and field-of-view often impedes reliable conclusions on the material’s properties. X-ray dark-field imaging (DFI) is based on the scattering of X-rays by sub-voxel-sized features, and as such, provides information on the sample complementary to that obtained using conventional µCT. In this manuscript, we apply X-ray dark-field tomography for the first time on four mineral building materials (quartzite, fired clay brick, fired clay roof tile, and carbonated mineral building material), and investigate which information the dark-field signal entails on the sub-resolution space of the sample. Dark-field tomography at multiple length scale sensitivities was performed at the TOMCAT beamline of the Swiss Light Source (Villigen, Switzerland) using a Talbot grating interferometer. The complementary information of the dark-field modality is most clear in the fired clay brick and roof tile; quartz grains that are almost indistinguishable in the conventional µCT scan are clearly visible in the dark-field owing to their low dark-field signal (homogenous sub-voxel structure), whereas the microporous bulk mass has a high dark-field signal. Large (resolved) pores on the other hand, which are clearly visible in the absorption dataset, are almost invisible in the dark-field modality because they are overprinted with dark-field signal originating from the bulk mass. The experiments also showed how the dark-field signal from a feature depends on the length scale sensitivity, which is set by moving the sample with respect to the grating interferometer.

Thermo-chemico-mechanical activation of bagasse ash to develop geopolymer based cold-pressed block

• Sugarcane bagasse ash (BA) is used as precursor to develop geopolymer brick. • Reactivity of BA was assessed, and its semi-dry paste was thermo-chemcio-mechanically activated. • Dune sand and river sand was used to further enhance the strength. • Good physico-mechanical relationships have been obtained and results are aligned with ASTM specifications. • FTIR analysis reconfirm the results and strengthen the discussion at molecular level. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is an agricultural waste, and it is well recognized as pozzolanic material after calcination. However, it’s potential to be used as precursor in geopolymerization; in raw form, after calcination or chemical treatment, along with the cold pressing is not being investigated in depth. Therefore, this experimental work was designed in which initially, the reactivity of SCBA was assessed by a modified Chapelle test, TGA, and XRD analysis. And later a paste was formed by mixing FA with different dosage of SCBA (10–30 wt%) in an alkaline environment and then further activated mechanically. Afterwards dune sand, another industrially discarded material, was also mixed to formulate mortar and to get benefits of its natural fineness. For mechanical activation, 20 MPa molding pressure was applied and a reduction in strength was observed by increasing SCBA contents. Whereas an increase in strength was observed when calcined SCBA was used (thermo-mechanical activation). The 20 % SCBA has almost the same results under both activation modes and therefore this percentage was selected for mortar formulation and a further increase in strength (up to 73 %) was observed. The strength gain mechanism was discussed at the molecular level by conducting FTIR analysis. Among all techniques, the mechanical activation and incorporation of dune sand was found to be the best choice. Furthermore, the physico-mechanical relationship was established, and the developed block was compared with the fired clay brick. It was observed that developed block has a lower density (1600 kg/m 3 ), lower water absorption (less than 15 %), and more strength than the limit specified (10.7 MPa) by ASTM standards. Moreover, by incorporating sand the strength criterion (21.3 MPa) for severe weathering condition was also achieved.

Incorporating of landfill leachate in fired-clay bricks manufacturing: An experimental study

Fired clay- brick industry consumes around 386 liters of water per 1000 bricks. Landfill leachate is considered an environmental burden. Therefore, this study aimed to use untreated landfill leachate instead of water in fired clay-brick to save water consumption and eradicate landfill leachate problems. Two types of landfill leachate were used instead of water, old and fresh leachate. They were characterized before use. Their water content was 90.9 and 95.8, respectively. Green brick was successfully manufactured without any deformation, cracking, or failure during brick molding, drying or burning. The produced fired clay- brick met the Egyptian standard requirements in terms of compression strength, water absorption, and efflorescence. It also met the environmental protection and consequently public health concerns in terms of heavy metal leaching. Recourses conservation, environmental pollution control, cost-saving, and production of standard products are the main benefits of this research work.

Estimating Radiation Shielding of Fired Clay Bricks Using ANN and GEP Approaches

This study aimed to determine how radiation attenuation would change when the thickness, density, and compressive strength of clay bricks, modified with partial replacement of clay by fly ash, iron slag, and wood ash. To conduct this investigation, four distinct types of bricks—normal, fly ash-, iron slag-, and wood ash-incorporated bricks were prepared by replacing clay content with their variable percentages. Additionally, models for predicting the radiation-shielding ability of bricks were created using gene expression programming (GEP) and artificial neural networks (ANN). The addition of iron slag improved the density and compressive strength of bricks, thus increasing shielding capability against gamma radiation. In contrast, fly ash and wood ash decreased the density and compressive strength of burnt clay bricks, leading to low radiation shielding capability. Concerning the performance of the Artificial Intelligence models, the root mean square error (RMSE) was determined as 0.1166 and 0.1876 nC for the training and validation data of ANN, respectively. The training set values for the GEP model manifested an RMSE equal to 0.2949 nC, whereas the validation data produced RMSE = 0.3507 nC. According to the statistical analysis, the generated models showed strong concordance between experimental and projected findings. The ANN model, in contrast, outperformed the GEP model in terms of accuracy, producing the lowest values of RMSE. Moreover, the variables contributing towards shielding characteristics of bricks were studied using parametric and sensitivity analyses, which showed that the thickness and density of bricks are the most influential parameters. In addition, the mathematical equation generated from the GEP model denotes its significance such that it can be used to estimate the radiation shielding of burnt clay bricks in the future with ease.

Utilizing Crushed Fired Clay Brick as Replacement of Coarse Aggregate in Concrete Mix

Demolition of structure produces waste of clay bricks, which is usually disposal in landfills. Using the recycled waste made from crushed fired clay brick in concrete producing is a possible alternative and leads to a cleaner environment. This research describes experimental tests to evaluate using crushed fired clay brick waste as partial replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete mix. The compressive strength and the slump of concrete containing crushed clay brick aggregates partially replacing normal aggregates has been compared against concrete with normal gravel aggregates. Sixteen compressive tests on 150 mm cubes at 7 days and 210 days ages of concrete have been conducted. Coarse aggregates have been partially replaced by crushed clay brick at 25 percent of the weight. The amount of normal Portland cement (Type 1), water, and fine aggregate has not been changed. The results show that the compressive strength of concrete made with 25% clay brick aggregates has not shown a significant reduction in the compressive strength. Recycling crushed clay brick aggregates in concrete production can be a promising practice, which could reduce the cost and give better environmental aspects.