Fire Suppression Research Articles

The role of large language models (AI chatbots) in fire engineering: An examination of technical questions against domain knowledge

This communication presents a short review of chatbot technology and preliminary findings from comparing two recent chatbots, OpenAI’s ChatGPT and Google’s Bard, in the context of fire engineering by evaluating their responses in handling fire safety-related queries. A diverse range of fire engineering questions and scenarios were created and examined, including structural fire design, fire prevention strategies, evacuation, building code compliance, and fire suppression systems. The results reveal some key differences in the performance of the chatbots, with ChatGPT demonstrating a relatively superior performance of 88% (vs. 80% for Bard). Then, this communication highlights the potential for chatbot technology to revolutionize fire engineering practices by providing instant access to critical information while outlining areas for further improvement and research. Evidently, and when it matures, this technology will likely be elemental to our engineers’ practice and education.

Containment and suppression of compartment fires using specialized liquid compositions

Experimental research findings are reported on the characteristics of physicochemical processes at different stages of fire development and suppression. Fires involving solid materials like wood, cardboard and linoleum were investigated. The minimum necessary and sufficient volumes of firefighting liquid (water with different additives, e.g., a foaming agent, bentonite, bischofite, etc.) and their spraying times were identified. Differences in spraying characteristics (droplet velocities, sizes and concentration) were recorded. A relationship between the spraying characteristics of fire extinguishing agents and efficiency of fire suppression was established. Correlations were identified between the operational characteristics of fire detectors during fire suppression involving several fire extinguishing agents. The most efficient compositions in terms of fire suppression time and extinguishing agent consumption were found for typical indoor combustible materials. Mathematical equations were derived to predict the key characteristics of fire suppression.

Early impacts of fire suppression in Jeffrey pine – Mixed conifer forests in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Mexico

Fire exclusion was first implemented across large areas of California and other areas of western North America in the late 19th or early 20th centuries but few studies have investigated how forests in the early decades after this decision were impacted. Jeffrey pine-mixed conifer forests of northern Baja California, Mexico, offer an area where this can be examined since fire suppression did not begin until the early 1970’s. We use repeated forest and fuel measurements taken over a 25-year period (1998–2023) and found significant changes in forest structure and fuel loads (increased tree density, fine fuel loads, large fuel loads, snag density, snag basal area) that together clearly demonstrate the cumulative effects of fire removal. Interestingly, Jeffrey pine became more dominant despite the lack of recent fire, which is counter to the shift towards more shade-tolerant tree species observed in many other fire-suppressed, frequent-fire forests in the western US. Although these changes in Baja California forests point towards increased fire hazard, they are still in relatively low hazard conditions compared to long-fire suppressed forests in the western US. Prescribed fire or managed wildfire could easily be applied to counter the increased fuel loads and tree densities detected in this work, without the need for mechanical manipulation. In addition to maintaining resilient forests, using fire will reduce the risk of losing the large astronomical observatory at this site to wildfire. Restoration and stewardship of resilient forest structures similar to those in Baja California is the only way forward to conserve similar forests of the Sierra Nevada, southern California mountains, and elsewhere in the western US.

Relationship between Simulated Fire Suppression Activities and Acute Cardiac and Respiratory Events in Firefighters.

Cardiac deaths account for the largest share of on-duty firefighter deaths. To help ensure duty fitness and minimize injury risk, many fire departments require the passing of an annual physical ability test, consisting of a battery of simulated fire suppression activities (sFSAs). The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship of sFSA performance to acute cardiac and respiratory events (ACREs) and the effect that estimated VO2max has on sFSA performance. The study was retrospective. As part of an annual physical ability test, five timed sFSAs were performed, summed for a composite time, and categorized into three performance levels (fast, moderate, and slow). Estimated VO2max was determined using the Forestry Step Test. A significant (p = 0.023) linear trend was observed with higher sFSA performance times being associated with a higher proportion of firefighters going on to suffer an ACRE. The estimated VO2max was significantly (p < 0.001) higher in the fast group compared to the slow group. There was not a significant (p = 0.70) difference in estimated VO2max between the moderate and slow groups. Estimated VO2max performance and sFSA performance were significantly correlated, with rs(488) = -0.272 and p < 0.001. Poorer sFSA performance was found to be associated with a higher proportion of ACREs. The results suggest that sFSA performance may be a valid indicator of ACRE injury risk and aerobic capacity.

The safety and environmental impacts of battery storage systems in renewable energy

The integration of battery storage systems in renewable energy infrastructure has garnered significant attention due to its potential to enhance energy reliability, efficiency, and sustainability. However, alongside these benefits, concerns persist regarding the safety and environmental impacts associated with the deployment and operation of such systems. This review explores the multifaceted aspects of safety and environmental considerations in battery storage systems within the context of renewable energy. Firstly, safety concerns encompass a range of factors, including thermal runaway, fire hazards, and chemical leakage, which pose risks to both human life and property. Mitigation strategies such as advanced battery management systems and fire suppression technologies are critical for addressing these risks effectively. Secondly, environmental impacts arise throughout the lifecycle of battery storage systems, from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal. Key issues include resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and pollution from mining activities. Sustainable practices such as responsible sourcing of materials, recycling initiatives, and the development of second-life applications are essential for minimizing environmental footprints. Furthermore, the interaction between battery storage systems and renewable energy sources introduces complexities in assessing environmental impacts. While battery storage facilitates the integration of intermittent renewables like solar and wind by providing grid stabilization and energy storage capabilities, its environmental benefits may be compromised by factors such as energy-intensive manufacturing processes and reliance on non-renewable resources. The safety and environmental impacts of battery storage systems in renewable energy demand comprehensive evaluation and management strategies to maximize benefits while minimizing risks. Collaboration among stakeholders, technological innovation, and regulatory frameworks are crucial for promoting the sustainable deployment and operation of these systems in the transition towards a cleaner and more resilient energy future.

Obscenity Factories: Profanity and Community in Workgroup Cultures

How does profanity contribute to community at work? While obscene talk might be viewed as contrary to the establishment of collegial ties, such discourse can, under the right circumstances, reinforce group sociality as well as challenge hierarchical control. In some sites of labor, participants are permitted—even expected—to use “bad language.” Rather than undermining local culture, this form of communication supports it by revealing the intensity of salient moments. We situate profanity as a means of deepening group membership (affiliation), defining a status hierarchy (division), and delineating boundaries (distinction). Not all workplaces are characterized by profanity, but those that are we label “obscenity factories,” emphasizing the production of community through conversational deviance. To examine this process, we utilize descriptive ethnographies of trauma doctors in war zones, restaurant cooks, wildland firefighters, and correction officers.

Проверка сообщений о преступлениях, связанных с лесными пожарами

The investigation of crimes associated with forest fires is a critical endeavor aimed at determining the causative factors preceding the commencement of criminal proceedings. Key aspects under scrutiny encompass the origin of the forest fire, extent of its propagation, magnitude of material damage incurred, employed technical means and methodologies for fire suppression, and identification of individuals present within the boundaries of the forested area where ignition occurred. The investigative protocol entails a comprehensive array of measures including on-site inspection of the forest fire locus, testimonies elicited from eyewitnesses and lessees of forested parcels, procurement and scrutiny of documents sourced from meteorological services, territorial forest protection authorities, and commissioning of judicial expertise. Additionally, the judicious utilization of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in fire scene reconnaissance is advocated for its intrinsic safety benefits to operational personnel. Moreover, the significance of satellite-derived imagery depicting pre- and post-fire forested terrain conditions is underscored for facilitating causal inference regarding forest fire occurrences. In conclusion, the investigation of crimes associated with forest fires embodies a symbiotic interplay between scientific inquiry and legal scrutiny, wherein the convergence of empirical evidence and jurisprudential deliberation serves as the linchpin of investigative integrity and judicial recourse. Moving forward, continued investment in research and technological development is imperative to augment the efficacy and expediency of forest fire investigations, thereby fortifying societal resilience against the perils of environmental degradation and criminal malfeasance.

Study on the fire extinguishing effect of compressed nitrogen foam on 280 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery

This study conducted experimental analyses on a 280 Ah single lithium iron phosphate battery using an independently constructed experimental platform to assess the efficacy of compressed nitrogen foam in extinguishing lithium-ion battery fires. Based on theoretical analysis, the fire-extinguishing effects of compressed nitrogen foam at different outlet pressures from foam mixture tanks were analyzed, examining factors such as battery surface temperature, flame temperature, and thermal weight loss. The results indicate that the compressed nitrogen foam can extinguish the open flame of the battery in 14 s at 0.7 MPa, with the battery's surface temperature dropping by approximately 11 % before and after the application of the extinguishing agent. Compared with other commonly used extinguishing agents, the compressed nitrogen foam demonstrates superior extinguishing efficiency, but its cooling efficiency is somewhat lower. At pressures ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 MPa, the foam displays prolonged drainage time and sustained cooling effects, rendering it more suitable for lithium-ion battery fire scenarios. To address the issue of reduced cooling performance during later stages of fire suppression by compressed nitrogen foam, an intermittent injection approach has been proposed to effectively preserve its cooling efficacy.

Numerical simulation of forced ventilation fire suppression for wing leading edge pool fires

In order to meet the requirements of the flammable liquid fire prevention regulations under AC25-863, which stipulates that in the event of ignition, the ignition and its harm of leaked flammable liquids should be minimized, this study investigates the impact on the aircraft structure and the suppression process of wing leading edge pool fires of flammable liquid leakage under forced ventilation fire suppression. Geometric modeling of the wing leading edge in the flammable liquid leakage area is performed, and the burning conditions of the flame under different conditions are simulated. The heat release rate per unit area of the pool fire surface is set to 396.67 kW/m, with ventilation speeds ranging from 0 to 3.1 m/s. Through the analysis of simulation charts and data, it is observed that as the forced ventilation rate increases, the pool fire gradually tends towards a trend of suppression

Design &amp; Development of Smart Fire Safety System For e-Vehicles Using IOT

The project concept of An autonomous fire safety mechanism for EVs is an inventive way of considering a less cost-effective design and a more convenient application for e-vehicle safety. Day by day, the number of fatalities in electric vehicles increases. In this project, our main aim is to reduce the number of accidents with electric vehicles by making a smart fire safety system for electric vehicles. With the rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), ensuring their safety, particularly concerning fire hazards, has become paramount. This abstract presents a conceptual framework for a sophisticated fire safety system tailored specifically for EVs. The proposed system integrates advanced technologies such as battery monitoring systems (BMS), temperature and smoke sensors, machine learning algorithms, active fire suppression mechanisms, emergency shutdown features, remote monitoring capabilities, user alerts, and compliance with safety standards. By combining these elements into a cohesive system, EV manufacturers can significantly mitigate the risks associated with fires in electric vehicles, enhancing overall safety for drivers, passengers, and emergency responders. With this technique, the fire extinguisher automatically puts out the fire when it detects flames or smoke coming from the vehicle's fire zones. Numerous factors can cause an electric vehicle to catch fire. The lithium-ion battery is the primary cause of flames in electric vehicles used within them. Installing an autonomous fire extinguishing system with Internet of Things (IoT) technology can reduce potential financial loss from a fire while also raising vehicle and human safety standards. Additionally, as soon as an accident is discovered, the nearby authorities or emergency services are notified, allowing them to get to you sooner. KEYWORDS:- Accident prevention, emergency alert, controller, fire incident, IOT technology, etc.

Isomerism-enabling low-temperature ultrasensitive and moisture-resistant fire-alarming “Guarder” via color changing

Aiming to integrate a low-temperature, ultrasensitive and wireless remote-monitoring fire alarming with a fire suppression into a commercialized system, in view of a heat-induced tailored isomerization of Salen molecules and sunflower configuration for a heat capturing, we constructed a quasi-core-shell MAPP@Salen with silaned ammonia polyphosphate guiding a vertical deposition of Salen lamellas assembly. Resultantly, MAPP@Salen demonstrated an ultralow triggering temperature of 120 °C and 1 s time at 250 oC with a remarkable color from yellow to dark red. A Salen isomerization and its vertical alignment on MAPP accounted for an ultra-sensitiveness feature. A model acrylic coating with MAPP@Salen presented a 0.3 s responsive time at 250 °C as well as instant (0.5 s) and unstopped warning once flame approached. A wireless signal communication system via a color recognition algorithm and 4 G IoT was realized. Additionally, the coating provided >10 min and ultrastrong intumescent fire protection via a Salen-participative charring optimization as well as well-persevered structural integrity after a long-term water attack. The fire-alarming capability was retained as well. This work pertaining to a bio-inspired hierarchical assembly integrates a low-temperature ultra-sensitive fire alarming and an optimized fire resistance for commercial all-time-scale fire retardants in multi-scenario universal applications.

Design and Validation of Advancing Autonomous Firefighting Robot

The quest for enhanced fire-fighting capabilities led to the design and validation of an autonomous firefighting robot in this study. Proteus software was leveraged for rigorous simulation, and the prototype integrated an array of components, including an IR flame sensor, servo motors, a submersible water pump, and a microcontroller-driven navigation system. Comprehensive testing was conducted with meticulous attention to component integrity and functionality, confirming the robot's ability to detect fires, navigate toward them, and effectively extinguish them using water. The robot utilized a 12V DC power supply and was powered by three 4V lithium rechargeable batteries. It seamlessly transitioned from breadboard testing to a soldered board configuration. Preliminary tests, conducted with a candle flame, validated the robot's efficacy in real-world fire detection and suppression scenarios. This innovative design highlighted the potential for robotic solutions in enhancing firefighting capabilities and ensuring safer environments.

FIRE FIGHTING ROBOT WITH ALERT SMS

The Arduino-based Fire Fighting Robot with SMS Alert System is a robotic system designed to detect and extinguish fires in indoor environments. The robot uses flame sensors to detect the presence of a fire. Once a fire is detected, the robot moves towards the source of the fire and sprays water to extinguish the flames. The robot is equipped with a GSM module that can send SMS messages to alert the user when a fire is detected. This allows for prompt action to be taken to minimize damage and save lives. The components of the robot include an Arduino board, motor drivers, sensors, and a GSM module. The software code is written in the Arduino IDE and controls the motors, reads sensor data, and communicates with the GSM module. The robot is tested and debugged to ensure that it functions correctly and safely in different scenarios. Overall, the Arduino-based Fire Fighting Robot with SMS Alert provides a reliable and efficient solution for fire detection and suppression with the added benefit of remote communication and control.

Trends in prescribed fire weather windows from 2000 to 2022 in California

As increasing wildfire activity puts pressure on wildland fire suppression resources both nationally and within the state of California, further development of programs and infrastructure that emphasize preventative fuels treatments, e.g. prescribed burning, is critical for mitigating the impacts of wildfire at large spatial scales. Among many factors that limit the use of prescribed fire, weather and fuel moisture conditions are among the most critical. We analyzed a 2-km gridded hourly surface weather dataset over a 23-yr period to explore the relationship between climatological trends and prescribed fire weather windows. Pairing this dataset with burn prescription parameters provided by experienced regional fire practitioners, we seek to identify the timing and extent of changes in weather-related opportunities for prescribed fire in two distinct geographic regions within California. We found an increasing trend in opportunities for prescribed fire use in Sonoma County, a representative coastal Mediterranean region of CA, and a decreasing trend in Plumas County, a montane region that extends through the Northern Sierra Nevada. Seasonally, we see more nuances—increased winter opportunities in both counties, as well as increased summer opportunities in Sonoma. Most notably, we see great variation spatially in the occurrence of suitable weather windows for prescribed burning. Fire management resource availability and air quality regulations further constrain burn windows. We observed a greater influence of these factors in Sonoma County vs. Plumas. Resource availability is the greatest constraint in the Summer and Fall, during wildfire season, and air quality regulations are a greater constraint in the Winter. Our findings provide information to decision-makers and regulators at the county and other government levels to more effectively support use of prescribed fire to achieve land management and fuels reduction goals.

Reliability study of fire suppression using dodecafluoro-2-methylpentan-3-one in small-sized confined space: From a temperature and gaseous products viewpoint

Despite the vast progress in fire-extinguishing agents and technology, the early-stage fire suppression in small-sized confined space (SCS) remains a challenge. This study introduces the reliability of SCS flame inhibition using dodecafluoro-2-methylpentan-3-one (C6F12O) through a self-assessment experimental platform to investigate the effectiveness, thermal effects, and toxic characteristics of gaseous products of C6F12O in extinguishing SCS fires. The results show that the fire extinguishing and cooling effects of C6F12O, as well as the smoke toxicity of its products, can be influenced by the agent dosage, SCS fire source setup, and spatial structure. The fire extinguishing and cooling effects of C6F12O are superior to those of H2O, and these effects can be enhanced with the increase in flow rates that are applied. However, after the extinguishing of the fire, a large quantity of toxic and irritating gaseous products will be produced, and such a risk can be reduced with excessive application of C6F12O. For SCSs with a simple structure (unobstructed condition), fires breaking out in their middle sections will pose a greater fire thermal hazard, and gas products after the application of C6F12O for fire extinguishing will present greater smoke toxicity. The thermal hazards of fires in the middle sections of SCSs can be significantly reduced with the addition of obstruction conditions inside the SCSs. However, there is an insignificant effect on the smoke toxicity of products after the extinguishing of fire. These research conclusions offer a breakthrough in the development of new fire-extinguishing materials (devices) primarily based on C6F12O for active prevention and control of initial SCS fires.

Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) Immersed in Fire Prevention Material for Fire Safety and Heat Management

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the most commercialized rechargeable battery technology. However, their inherent property, called thermal runaway, poses a high risk of fire. This article introduces the “Battery Immersed in Fire Prevention Material (BIF)”, the immersion-type battery in which all of the LIB cells are surrounded by a liquid agent. This structure and the agent enable active battery fire suppression under abusive conditions while facilitating improved thermal management during normal operation. Abuse tests involving a battery revealed that the LIB module experienced fire, explosions, and burnouts with the target cell reaching temperatures of 1405 °C and the side reaching 796 °C. Conversely, the BIF module exhibited a complete lack of fire propagation, with temperatures lower than those of LIBs, particularly 285 and 17 °C, respectively. Under normal operating conditions, the BIF module exhibited an average temperature rise ~8.6 times lower than that of a normal LIB. Furthermore, it reduced the uneven thermal deviation between the cells by ~5.3 times more than LIB. This study provides a detailed exploration of the BIF and covers everything from components to practical applications. With further improvements, this technology can significantly enhance fire safety and prevent the thermal degradation of batteries in the real world.

Backfire: the settler-colonial logic and legacy of Smokey Bear

ABSTRACT Since the 1940s, the United States Forest Service’s (USFS) national fire suppression efforts have been bolstered by a public-facing ad campaign led by the Ad Council, most notably through the iconic rise of Smokey Bear. The consequences of decades of strict fire suppression, promulgated and solidified by this highly successful campaign, have been ecologically disastrous, and especially detrimental for fire-dependent Indigenous communities and ecosystems. Scholars have examined the Smokey campaign’s racialized, nationalist discourse, yet none have grappled with the campaign’s settler colonial logic, itself replete with gendered exclusion and speciesism. In this article, we combine intersectional theoretical frameworks with settler colonial and Indigenous studies to carry out a systematic content analysis of 201 unique campaign documents. We demonstrate how the campaign’s production of the careful citizen – one rooted in mid-to-upper class, settler masculinity – hinges on interlocking narratives of Indigenous erasure, low-class criminality, and the helpless victimhood of women and more-than-human species.

The 2023 wildfire season in Québec: an overview of extreme conditions, impacts, lessons learned and considerations for the future

The 2023 wildfire season in Québec set records due to extreme warm and dry conditions, burning 4.5 million hectares and indicating persistent and escalating impacts associated with climate change. This study reviews the unusual weather conditions that led to the fires, discussing their extensive impacts on the forest sector, fire management, boreal caribou habitats, and particularly the profound effects on First Nation communities. The wildfires led to significant declines in forest productivity and timber supply, overwhelming fire management resources, and necessitating widespread evacuations. First Nation territories were dramatically altered, facing severe air quality issues and disruptions. While caribou impacts were modest across the province, the broader ecological, economical, and social repercussions were considerable. To mitigate future extreme wildfire seasons, the study suggests changes in forest management practices to increase forest resilience and resistance, adapting industrial structures to changes in wood type harvested, and enhancing fire suppression and risk management strategies. It calls for a comprehensive, unified approach to risk management that incorporates the lessons learned from the 2023 fire season and accounts for ongoing climate change. The studyunderscores the urgent need for detailed planning and proactive measures to reduce the growing risks and impacts of wildfires in a changing climate.

Toward better halon substitutes: Effects of carbon chain length on pyrolytic and fire-suppressing mechanisms of perfluoroalkanes

The use of halon fire extinguishants has led to the depletion of the ozone layer, prompting numerous international organizations to invest significant efforts in finding suitable halon alternatives. Among the counterparts, perfluorinated compounds stand out due to their environmental friendliness, specifically, CF3CF3, CF3CF2CF3 and CF3CF2CF2CF3 have been identified by NASA as the most promising candidates within this chemical family. This study digs into the impact of carbon chain length on thermal decomposition and fire suppression mechanisms of perfluoroalkanes with the three agents as model substances, employing experimental and theoretical analyses. Thermal decomposition products within the temperature range of 600 °C - 900 °C and fire suppression performances, including fire-extinguishing concentrations (9.38 vol.%, 7.81 vol.%, and 6.87 vol.%, respectively), variation of the flame morphology and temperature, are intensively analyzed and compared for the three perfluoroalkanes. Theoretical calculations indicate a decrease in carbon chain stability with the increasing chain length, and CF3CF2CF2CF3 manifests the most diversified self-decomposition paths at low energy barriers. Moreover, a wider spectrum of free radicals can be generated from the longer carbon chain via the CC cleavage, which can efficiently react with and continuously consume flame radicals (H• and OH•) to interrupt the combustion chain reaction. These findings enrich the structure-performance relationship of perfluoroalkanes, highlight the potential of specific perfluorinated compounds as viable halon alternatives and offer theoretical guidance for the selection and design of environmentally benign and efficient halon substitutes.

Canopy active fuel loads estimation with C-band PolSAR by combining polarization decomposition and vegetation scattering model: a case study in Southwestern China

ABSTRACT The forest canopy active fuel load (CAFL) is easily flammable that is usually consumed in the flaming front, and is a critical factor in crown fire early prediction, suppression and response. Previous studies universally relied on optical remote sensing data, whose effectiveness is extremely limited in regions with cloud cover and haze, such as the southwest of Sichuan, China. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can work 24 h and is not affected by weather conditions. This study aims to evaluate the potential of volume backscattering coefficients extracted through decomposition of polarimetric SAR (PolSAR, Radarsat-2 C band) for CAFL estimation. The polarimetric decomposition method used in this study was based on Freeman-Durden decomposition. The separated volume backscattering coefficients were used to estimate CAFL based on the variant of the extended water cloud model (VEWCM). For comparison, the SAR raw observations and extended water cloud model (EWCM) were also used to estimate CAFL. The performance of these two models was validated through quantitative assessment, utilizing CAFL measurements obtained from southwest Sichuan and the leave-one-out cross-validation method. Results show that the VEWCM (R2 = 0.69, RMSE = 0.87 tons/ha) performed better than EWCM (R2 = 0.60, RMSE = 1.48 tons/ha) especially in HV polarization. We concluded that PolSAR has the potential to improve CAFL estimation and further assist with pre-fire risk warnings, fire suppression responses, and post-fire effects assessment.