Fire Hazard Assessment Research Articles

Predicting Fractional Shrub Cover in Heterogeneous Mediterranean Landscapes Using Machine Learning and Sentinel-2 Imagery

Wildfires pose a growing threat to Mediterranean ecosystems. This study employs advanced classification techniques for shrub fractional cover mapping from satellite imagery in a fire-prone landscape in Quinta da França (QF), Portugal. The study area is characterized by fine-grained heterogeneous land cover and a Mediterranean climate. In this type of landscape, shrub encroachment after land abandonment and wildfires constitutes a threat to ecosystem resilience—in particular, by increasing the susceptibility to more frequent and large fires. High-resolution mapping of shrub cover is, therefore, an important contribution to landscape management for fire prevention. Here, a 20 cm resolution land cover map was used to label 10 m Sentinel-2 pixels according to their shrub cover percentage (three categories: 0%, >0%–50%, and >50%) for training and testing. Three distinct algorithms, namely Support Vector Machine (SVM), Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), and Random Forest (RF), were tested for this purpose. RF excelled, achieving the highest precision (82%–88%), recall (77%–92%), and F1 score (83%–88%) across all categories (test and validation sets) compared to SVM and ANN, demonstrating its superior ability to accurately predict shrub fractional cover. Analysis of confusion matrices revealed RF’s superior ability to accurately predict shrub fractional cover (higher true positives) with fewer misclassifications (lower false positives and false negatives). McNemar’s test indicated statistically significant differences (p value < 0.05) between all models, consolidating RF’s dominance. The development of shrub fractional cover maps and derived map products is anticipated to leverage key information to support landscape management, such as for the assessment of fire hazard and the more effective planning of preventive actions.

Sustainable Fire Protection: Reducing Carbon Footprint with Advanced Coating Technologies

Metallum Fire-Resistant paint, denoted as MFR henceforth, represents a cutting-edge insulating material with dual functionality as a fireproof solution, presenting substantial advantages in the realm of construction applications. This exposition derives its primary insights from the scholarly contributions documented in publications. The focal point of these investigations includes the assessment of fire hazards associated with polyethylene materials in building structures and the enhancement of mortars in high-temperature environments in tunnels. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a modified cork-based coating (MFR) compared to traditional coatings in terms of corrosion protection, fire resistance, and thermal insulation properties in construction applications. This evaluation focuses on quantifying the efficacy of MFR by examining key properties, such as adhesion, the reduced thickness required for fire protection, thermal conductivity reduction, and corrosion resistance under extreme environmental conditions. MFR is highly effective in fire prevention for buildings and tunnels, withstanding temperatures over 1000 °C while maintaining structural integrity. A unique aspect of MFR is its use of cork shavings, a typically underutilized byproduct from wine-bottle-stopper production. This innovative not only amplifies MFR’s fire-resistant attributes, but also introduces sustainability and judicious resource utilization into its manufacturing processes.

Research on fire hazard assessment of metro baggage based on improved hierarchical analysis

Underground station passenger flow is large, the number of parcels carried by passengers is large and varied, and the parcels carried have an impact on the fire hazard and evacuation of the station. In order to determine the weights of the passenger luggage risk and environmental factor index system in the fire risk evaluation of underground stations in a more realistic way, an optimized and improved hierarchical analysis method for determining the judgement matrix is proposed, which improves the traditional nine-scaled method and adopts the three-scaled method for the four major categories of luggage, namely, handbags, rucksacks, portable power tools and trolley cases. The advantage of this method is that there is no need for consistency judgement in determining packages with a wide range of types and uncertain contents, thus simplifying the calculation. Meanwhile, the reasonableness and reliability of the method is verified by combining it with an actual metro station fire risk assessment system.

Comprehensive assessment of fire hazard for polyurethane foam based on AHP-entropy-weighted TOPSIS

Comprehensive assessment of fire hazard for polyurethane foam based on AHP-entropy-weighted TOPSIS

Forest Fire Hazards and Livelihood Vulnerability Assessment of Ghumsur Forests in Ganjam District of Odisha

Background: The livelihood patterns of indigenous tribal communities residing in the Ghumsur forests are intricately interwoven with their dependence on forest-related activities. However, the degradation of forest ecosystems, particularly the incidence of forest fires, exerts a profound impact on the socio-economic dynamics and resilience of these communities. Consequently, an exigent need arises to comprehensively elucidate, evaluate and comprehend the nuanced characteristics of these areas concerning the complex interplay between forest fires and livelihoods. Methods: A thorough investigation was conducted to evaluate livelihood vulnerability to forest fires in the Ghumsur North Division forests. This assessment utilized the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI), incorporating 34 indicators condensed into six factors for a comprehensive composite index. The factors represented various aspects of vulnerability and were based on tangible indicators reflecting the complexity of livelihood vulnerability. Data sources were primarily used, with indicators standardized on a scale from 0 to 1, where values near 1 indicated higher vulnerability. Result: The Gallery sub-region is particularly vulnerable due to factors like poor infrastructure, increased reliance on forests, close proximity to forested areas, socio-economic fragility and exposure to extreme weather events. It’s crucial to improve adaptive capacity in fire-affected regions to reduce vulnerability to forest fires. Tailored policy interventions should focus on sector-specific development programs and involve communities in adaptation planning to address the link between livelihoods and susceptibility to forest fires.

Analysis and forecasting of the scale and impact of forest fires on ecosystems of Ukraine

Forest fires are one of the most significant environmental problems that have a major impact on biodiversity and climate conditions. The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of military operations on the ground cover in the area of the Bekhy forestry, which was disturbed by fire. It was revealed that for the period 2022-2023, 15 forest fires were recorded on the territory of the Korosten forest hunting enterprise of the state enterprise “Forests of Ukraine”, while the total area covered by fires was 15.13 ha. Overall, the number of fires increased from 5 to 10, but the total area covered by fires decreased from 12.1 to 3.03 ha. At the site of fires in 2022, the pH level increased to lower horizons, with the highest values at microhills (7.55) and microdepressions (7.35). There was a slight increase in the organic carbon content in the upper humus horizon of soils (0.42% on microhills and 0.46% on microdepressions). Bekhy forestry suffered a large forest fire in May 2023, which covered an area of 1.2 ha. The fire hazard assessment of each quarter was carried out separately. In the 50th and 51st compartments, Scots pine was the most fire-prone type of plantings. The 2023 fire site also showed an increase in pH in the lower horizons, with the highest values in microhills (7.35) and microdepressions (7.55). The 2023 fire site showed a decrease in organic carbon content compared to the background sites, with minimal values in the lower parts of the soil profile (0.33% on microdepressions and 0.38% on microhills). The results of the study can be used to develop and implement environmental measures and programmes aimed at restoring forests damaged by fire

Forty-Year Fire History Reconstruction from Landsat Data in Mediterranean Ecosystems of Algeria following International Standards

Algeria, the main fire hotspot on the southern rim of the Mediterranean Basin, lacks a complete fire dataset with official fire perimeters, and the existing one contains inconsistencies. Preprocessed global and regional burned area (BA) products provide valuable insights into fire patterns, characteristics, and dynamics over time and space, and into their impact on climate change. Nevertheless, they exhibit certain limitations linked with their inherent spatio-temporal resolutions as well as temporal and geographical coverage. To address the need for reliable BA information in Algeria, we systematically reconstructed, validated, and analyzed a 40-year (1984–2023) BA product (NEALGEBA; North Eastern ALGeria Burned Area) at 30 m spatial resolution in the typical Mediterranean ecosystems of this region, following international standards. We used Landsat data and the BA Mapping Tools (BAMTs) in the Google Earth Engine (GEE) to map BAs. The spatial validation of NEALGEBA, performed for 2017 and 2021 using independent 10 m spatial resolution Sentinel-2 reference data, showed overall accuracies > 98.10%; commission and omission errors < 8.20%; Dice coefficients > 91.90%; and relative biases < 3.44%. The temporal validation, however, using MODIS and VIIRS active fire hotspots, emphasized the limitation of Landsat-based BA products in temporal fire reporting accuracy terms. The intercomparison with five readily available BA products for 2017, by using the same validation process, demonstrated the overall outperformance of NEALGEBA. Furthermore, our BA product exhibited the highest correspondence with the ground-based BA estimates. NEALGEBA currently represents the most continuous and reliable time series of BA history at fine spatial resolution for NE Algeria, offering a significant contribution to further national and international fire hazard and impact assessments and acts as a reference dataset for contextualizing future weather extremes, such as the 2023 exceptional heat wave, which we show not to have led to the most extreme fire year over the last four decades.

Flame extension length and temperature profile beneath ceiling induced by endwall-attached fire inside compartment with lateral openings

This study experimentally investigated the fire characteristics of endwall-attached fire within the long-narrow compartment, including the flame extension and temperature profile. Experiments were conducted in a reduced scaled compartment featuring multiple lateral openings. Results show that the previous models of flame extension length and temperature rise in the literatures, whether for sidewall fires in tunnels or central fires in compartments with lateral openings, cannot predict the experimental data in this study. A new correlation is proposed for the flame extension length based on non-dimensional heat release rate. The longitudinal temperature profile generated by endwall-attached fires in compartment can be classified into three distinct regions related to the position of the lateral opening: temperature rapid decrease region, temperature slow decrease region, and backflow region at the end of the compartment. A model for the maximum temperature rise and a piecewise equation based on single exponential function for temperature decay profile are proposed, and these equations effectively correlate the experimental data. The findings of this study can deepen the understanding of fire dynamics within similar building structures and have value for the fire hazard assessment.

Study on the flame radiative heat transfer and near-field radiation heat flux predictive model of vehicle fires in a tunnel

As a major form of heat transfer, flame thermal radiation has an important effect on the ignition of adjacent energy, fire spread and environmental damage. Forecasting the flame radiation heat flux can provide theoretical basis for fire hazard assessment, fire extinguishing and salvation. Meanwhile, the distinctive structure of the arc tunnel can result in significant variations in the local heat and mass transfer processes during tunnel fires compared to those in rectangular tunnels, leading to different fire characteristics parameters. In this study, experiments and theoretical analyses were conducted to investigate the flame length scale and near-field radiation heat flux on the lower surface of an arc-shaped ceiling induced by vehicle fires in a tunnel. The findings reveal that the flame length scale in the transverse direction beneath the arc-shaped ceiling decreases with an increasing burner aspect ratio and increases with the increasing heat release rate. A dimensionless model of the flame length scale under the arced ceiling with various burner aspect ratios was proposed based on the amount of remaining unburned fuel after flame impingement and the buoyancy component along the arc-shaped ceiling. Simultaneously, radiative heat fluxes on the lower surface also increase with rising heat release rate. The flame geometry beneath the arc-shaped ceiling is assumed to be a combination of a cuboid and an arc plate model based on the actual flame length scale. Subsequently, the view factor, radiative fraction, and flame surface area are analyzed to predict the radiative heat fluxes on the lower surface. The predictions of the cuboid and arc plate flame model show good agreement with the current experimental data. This work presents a dimensionless correlation of the flame length scale and calculates the view factor between the target and the arc plate to predict the near-field radiative heat flux more accurately. This approach also facilitates the understanding of flame spreading behavior and thermal hazards impacted by arced ceiling.

Spontaneous ignition of corrugated cardboard under dynamic high radiant flux

Understanding the response of solid combustibles under high radiant fluxes is critical in predicting the thermal damage from extreme scenarios. Unlike the more moderate radiant fluxes in conventional hydrocarbon fires, extreme events such as strong explosion, concentrated sunlight and directed energy can generate dynamic radiant fluxes at the MW/m2 level, creating a unique threat to materials. This study investigates the pyrolysis and spontaneous ignition behaviors of corrugated cardboard by using both experimental and numerical methods, under 10-cm dynamic high radiant fluxes ranging from 0.2 to 1.25 MW/m2 for 10 s. The spontaneous ignition process at dynamic high radiant fluxes was recorded and quantified. Two ignition modes were found at the critical radiant flux of 0.4 MW/m2, namely hot-gas spontaneous ignition and hot-residue piloted ignition. The latter is not the focus of this paper due to its extremely small probability of occurrence. The research reveals that the increase in flux intensity induces shorter delay times for both pyrolysis and ignition, lower ignition energy density, along with a corresponding rise in the critical mass flux and surface temperature at ignition moment. The simulation results are generally aligned with the experimental findings, despite some divergences may be attributed to model simplifications and parameter assumptions. The work contributes to a deeper insight into material behavior under extreme radiation, with valuable implications for fire safety and hazard assessment.

3PL Fire and Safety Hazard Assessment and Mitigation

3PL facilities, handling high volumes of goods, face unique fire and safety risks. This abstract explores assessing and mitigating these hazards. Common fire hazards include flammable materials, electrical issues, and improper storage. Safety hazards encompass slips, falls, and misuse of machinery. Assessment techniques involve inspections, reviewing safety data sheets, and analyzing incidents. Mitigation strategies focus on fire safety plans, proper storage, electrical safety, and employee training. The abstract emphasizes preventative maintenance and a culture of safety for a safer 3PL environment.

Combustion characteristics and fire hazard assessment of small-scale pool fires in increased oxygen concentration

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of oxygen concentration on pool fire combustion in specific locations where oxygen concentrations exceed 21% due to oxygen leaks, such as rocket launch sites, aircraft, submarines, etc. The combustion characteristics of small-scale pool fires under high oxygen concentrations should be conducted by experimental and theoretical analysis. This study discussed the effects of high oxygen concentrations on heat release rate, burning rate, and combustion efficiency under Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) test conditions and measured the flame height and boiling mechanisms in a Semi-open Oxygen-adjustable Experimental Platform (SOEP). The results show that boiling combustion of small-scale pool fires is more intense, the burning rate and heat release rate in the boiling stage are significantly enhanced under high oxygen concentrations. Empirical models of flame height and heat feedback have been established. In conclusion, the hazards of oxygen-enriched fires were evaluated. This study provides foundational data and predictive models to mitigate the threats posed by oxygen-enriched pool fires in the process industry.

Resilience assessment of metro stations based on AHP-PSO fuzzy combined empowerment method with baggage impact perspective

Fire accidents are one of the serious security threats facing the metro, and the accurate determination of the index system and weights for fire assessment in underground stations is the key to conducting fire hazard assessment. Among them, the type and quantity of baggage, which varies with the number of passengers, is an important factor affecting the fire hazard assessment. This study is based on the combination of subjective and objective AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) with the available Particle Swarm Optimisation algorithm PSO (Particle Swarm Optimization) and the perfect CRITIC (Criteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation) empowered fuzzy evaluation method on the metro station fire hazard toughness indicator system and its weights were determined, and a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model of metro station safety toughness under the influence of baggage was constructed. The practical application proves that the method provides a new perspective for the fire risk assessment of underground stations, and also provides a theoretical basis for the prevention and control of mobile fire load hazards in underground stations.

Fire hazard and fire risk assessment of urban areas in North Macedonia

Fire hazard and fire risk assessment of urban areas in North Macedonia

Methodology for probabilistic tsunami-triggered oil spill fire hazard assessment based on Natech cascading disaster modeling

A novel modeling methodology is presented for cascading disasters triggered by tsunami hazards considering uncertainties. The proposed methodology focuses on tsunami-triggered oil spills and subsequent fires, a type of natural hazard-triggered technological (Natech) event. The methodology numerically simulates the time-varying behavior of tsunami-triggered oil spill fires for numerous stochastically generated scenarios and performs a probabilistic mapping of the maximum radiative heat flux as a quantitative measure of the fire hazard. To enable these assessments, probabilistic tsunami hazard assessments are extended to include the tsunami-induced movement of oil storage tanks, resulting oil spills, tsunami-driven oil fire spread, and thermal radiation from fires. The uncertainty of the earthquake fault slip distribution, oil filling level of storage tanks, and fire starting time and position is incorporated into the new assessments. To demonstrate the methodology, a realistic case study is conducted for a coastal petrochemical industrial park in Japan conditioned on possible offshore moment magnitude 9.1 earthquakes. Contrary to typical tsunami direct impact assessments, the results highlight the cascading effects of tsunamis and large variability in key output variables concerning oil spills and fires. This indicates that the methodology is useful for deepening stakeholders’ understanding of tsunami-triggered cascading disasters and improving risk reduction plans.

Influence of the facade slope on fire propagation processes on higher floors

The study considers the issue of the influence of the structural parameters of the facade on the processes of fire propagation through the external enclosing structures of buildings. The object of the study is the process of temperature changes on the surface of the inclined external enclosing structures of the building due to the action of fire. The study of the influence of the angles of inclination of the facade on the processes of fire propagation and the nature of temperature distributions on the surface of the facade was carried out. During the research, the methodology of experimental tests was used to limit the spread of fire along the facades using an installation that allows you to reproduce the angles of inclination. As the studied fragment of the facade, an external enclosing structure made of non-combustible materials without external cladding was used. Thermocouples were placed on the surface of the facade, which made it possible to obtain temperature data near its surface in real mode throughout the duration of the research. A class 34B model fire source provided a fire load of at least 2,200 MJ/m2 and an average temperature of 800–850 °С throughout the duration of the research. It was found that in the presence of a slope of the facade at an angle of +20°, an increase in temperature near the surface of the studied area by 24–26 % was observed. In the presence of an inclination of the facade at an angle of –20°, a decrease in temperature near the surface of the studied area by up to 55 % was observed. The obtained dependences will make it possible to review the approaches to the existing field methods of fire hazard assessment of facade systems. The practical result of the implementation of the obtained data may be the introduction of changes to building regulations to increase the level of fire protection of facade systems and buildings in general

Harmonization of semi-objective ANP with explained CRITIC for quantitative evaluation of fire hazard risks for flame-retardant materials

The fire hazard assessment of polymers and the effect of flame retardants constitutes the foundation for preventing and managing fire risks to public safety. This study addresses key challenges by considering intrinsic hazards, indicator volatility and correlations, while overcoming subjectivity in weight assignment and the neglect of flame-retardant treatments. Firstly, we initiate two novel steps of Pearson correlation analysis and predefined comparative scales for indicators, which enhance the objectivity, scalability and repeatability of analytic network process (ANP) weights. Secondly, we utilize the CRITIC method to incorporate indicator volatility and correlations, surpassing the limitations of separate calculations and subsequent combinations. The newly developed pure sample normalization method enhances the interpretability and scientific validity of CRITIC weights. Combining the ANP and CRITIC weights using Nash equilibrium theory, the results rectify the underestimated T-5% from 0.72% to 3.64%, reducing the overestimated PCO2, PSP and TSP from 11.98%, 9.62% and 9.59–7.25%, 9.12% and 5.69%, respectively. Finally, the fire hazards value effectively captures the increased fire hazards resulting from specific degraded indicators following flame retardant treatments. The research findings provide a fresh perspective for the safe design of flame-retardant polymers and fire hazard assessment, offering valuable insights for fire risk prevention and management.

A feasible heat release rate estimation approach for fire hazard assessment in green design

New energy harvesting systems in buildings are becoming more attractive in new green buildings. However, the potential fire hazard of the combustible items used in new green building limits their wider application. Fire behaviour of combustible items in new green designs should be studied carefully. Heat release rate of burning combustible items of different materials is important in fire hazard assessment and can be estimated by oxygen consumption calorimetry. An exhaust hood with a fan-duct system was built to collect flue gas. As the burning was likely to be incomplete in building fires, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor and soot would be emitted. Heat release rates of combustible items were estimated by measuring the transient amount of oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide collected by the hood. Based on mass balancing, there are at least three equations in terms of mass flow rates of oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the incoming air and exhaust gas. There are always questions about using which equations because measuring gases in full-scale burning tests is difficult and expensive. These three equations are introduced and compared in this paper. Heat release rates of four selected combustible items were studied as an example case. Accuracy of the results based on the measured oxygen concentration only was similar to the values provided by commercial software. Results from the experimental data are useful in further full-scale burning tests on combustible items in energy harvest systems planning at the moment.

A Study on Numerical Model Uncertainty of Smoke Concentration in Fire Simulation

The prediction accuracy of smoke concentration related to visibility in fire hazard assessment using fire simulation contains a significant error compared to gas temperature and toxic gas concentration. However, the results are limited because the prediction uncertainty of smoke concentration was reviewed through specific fuels and experimental conditions. This study conducted experiments and simulations to evaluate the prediction uncertainty of smoke concentration in the numerical model using various fire conditions. Consequently, as various fuel and experimental conditions were applied, the predicted smoke concentration using fire simulation was confirmed to have a relative error from –45% to 520% based on the measurement data. Moreover, it was also confirm that the dependence on fuel types was significant.

Analysis of fire and explosion hazards caused by industrial dusts with a high content of volatile matter

The objective of the study is to indicate and analyse the influence of the parameters describing the composition and properties of the tested samples on their behaviour under fire and explosion hazard conditions. Research was carried out on six combustible dust samples from various industry sectors, in which dust is created due to technological processes and, consequently, fire and explosion hazards occur. A physicochemical analysis of the tested samples was performed to determine the technical and elemental composition and particle distribution, and TGA analysis was performed to determine the conditions of the devolatilization. The cloud and hot surface ignition tests were performed and the basic explosive parameters were determined. The analysis of the results obtained shows that there are no mutual dependencies between the parameters describing fire and explosion hazards, and the physicochemical parameters are not explicitly decisive when it comes to the occurrence of these hazards. It was found that the main factor influencing dust ignition is the devolatilization, especially the temperature at which the devolatilization rate is the highest. The research showed that there are certain dependencies and connections between the properties of the samples and their susceptibility to ignition or explosion proneness. However, to develop a precise assessment of dust fire and explosion hazards considering the ATEX directives, it is still necessary to carry out complete dust tests.