Fine Cocoa Research Articles

Improving smallholder livelihoods and ecosystems through direct trade relations: High‐quality cocoa producers in Ecuador

AbstractGlobal trade in niche commodities has increased the influence of consumers' choices on land use change and livelihoods in developing rural areas. New niche commodity markets for fine cocoa—produced by old tree varieties frequently grown in shaded agroforestry systems—create more direct linkages between producers and buyers. We explored the socioeconomic and environmental outcomes for cocoa smallholders that participated in direct trade relations compared with smallholders that sold through mainstream markets. Household interviews were conducted with cocoa smallholders in northern Ecuador. Biodiversity conditions at farm level were monitored for 75% of surveyed households. Using a counterfactual based on genetic matching, we found that smallholders engaged in direct trade (a) captured superior prices for cocoa sales; (b) had greater access to agricultural training, technical assistance, and improved social networks; and (b) applied more nature‐friendly management practices, compared with smallholders selling through mainstream markets. However, a strong overlap between direct trading practices and organic certification made attribution of environmental benefits difficult. This overlap likely explained why farmers engaged in direct trade used more organic fertilizers and less herbicide. Shade level and plant species richness and abundance in plantations were unrelated to market participation. Additional qualitative analyses suggest that certification facilitates engagement in direct trade and that some direct buyers request certification. This study provides insights on the potential of developing value chain innovations for high‐quality commodity trade. The success of value chain innovations hinges on the competitiveness of farmers' cooperatives and involvement of governments, nongovernmental organizations, and private actors.

Linking cocoa varietals and microbial diversity of Nicaraguan fine cocoa bean fermentations and their impact on final cocoa quality appreciation

Nicaraguan cocoa bean fermentations of several single local cocoa varieties originating from the same region (North Highlands of Nicaragua, San Jose de Bocay/El Cuá) were compared to fermentations of blended cocoa varietals from other producing regions of the country (Waslala and Nueva Guinea) making use of High Throughput Sequencing techniques, metabolite target analysis and sensory evaluation of cocoa liquor samples. A succession of the important cocoa-related yeasts Hanseniaspora uvarum/opuntiae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and/or Pichia kudriavzevii was seen for single varietals and Nueva Guinea fermentations, while Kazachstania humilis dominated the mid and end phase of the Waslala cocoa fermentations. Tatumella species (mainly Tatumella terrea and Tatumella punctata) predominated the bacterial community at the onset of all fermentations followed by unusually late (generally 2 days into the fermentations) appearance of Lactobacillus fermentum relative to fermentations in other parts of the World. Acetobacter spp. were the main acetic acid bacteria during all fermentations, but also Gluconobacter spp. were involved in some single-variety fermentations. All fermentations proved complete as determined by metabolite analysis with bean sucrose being fully depleted and pulp sugars exhausted after 48–72 h of fermentation. From an organoleptic point of view, all Nicaraguan cocoas of this study reflected fine fruity (citrus or berry-like) flavours with distinct herbal or caramel notes. Floral notes were associated with the cases where P. kudriavzevii was involved in the later stages of fermentation. Intense citrus/fruity character was related to high pulp and bean citrate concentrations. Off-notes were found in some over-fermented batches where Bacillus spp. was detected. No relation between cut-test results and organoleptic appreciation was seen.

Evaluation of the agricultural status of the national cacao plantations in Ecuador

Ecuador overview aims to be the second country producer of cocoa at international level, in 2010, producing 132 thousand tons of cocoa and became the eighth country producer in the world. In 2018 it became the fourth with 315 thousand tons, but the expectations for this year 2019 are overcome 400 thousand tons and advance to second place behind Ivory Coast. The Ministry of agriculture has joined the effort of producers, since 2011 began the great national pruning that allows the increase of the production under the parameters of quality and technical care. Pruning to rehabilitate hectares planted with cocoa; delivery of grafted and certified fine aroma cacao plants are part of the strategies applied by the Ministry of agriculture, livestock, aquaculture and fisheries, through the reactivation of the coffee project and national fine Aroma Cacao, to improve the production and productivity of such a product, this reactivation would ensure the success of the productions, so it becomes necessary to know the current situation of the plantations and establish efficient management, and proposing actions to eliminate the causes that affect the production of fine cocoa.

Evaluación de la cadena de valor del cacao (Theobroma cacao l.) peruano

La investigación tuvo como objetivo principal determinar las deficiencias de la situación actual de la cadena de valor del cacao peruano, y plantear propuestas de mejora integrales en la misma, a través de los factores competitivos en cuestión. Para ello se utilizaron como herramientas: el análisis de la cadena de valor y el análisis del diamante competitivo de Porter. El análisis de la cadena de valor, permitió una “fotografía” completa de quienes han participado, de qué manera, con qué intereses, sus interrelaciones, visualizando las necesidades y potencialidades de los diferentes actores para el mejoramiento individual y en conjunto. En el análisis del diamante competitivo de Porter se interrelacionaron los componentes del sector del cacao. Las mejoras en la cadena de valor fueron: el resultado de la vinculación de la estrategia, la estructura y la rivalidad entre las compañías del sector, la condición de los factores, las condiciones de la demanda, y los sectores conexos y de apoyo o clúster, que son actividades ligadas entre las empresas que participan en un sector del cacao; todas fundamentales para alcanzar la ventaja competitiva; que van a reducir la brecha de los diferentes eslabones convertidos en factores competitivos, para dar lugar al desarrollo de capacidades y generar oferta exportable de cacao en diferentes nichos de mercado, que a la fecha está alrededor de 100 000 toneladas aproximadamente. Las operaciones de producción agrícola, pos cosecha y transformación requieren mejoras sustanciales para evitar costos de no calidad y la baja retribución del valor del cacao hacia el agricultor. De los problemas encontrados se derivan un conjunto de lineamientos estratégicos en el corto, mediano y largo plazo, proyectando para el futuro una cadena competitiva, como el posicionamiento por “diferenciación”, direccionada a producir cacao fino o de aroma, cacao orgánico e innovación en productos con cacao peruano.

Efecto del encalado en el uso eficiente de macronutrientes para cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en la Amazonia colombiana

En la Amazonia colombiana, el cultivo de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) presenta bajo rendimiento debido a que la alta acidez del suelo limita el uso eficiente de nutrientes. Por lo tanto, esta investigación evalúa el efecto del encalamiento y la fertilización en un suelo ácido (Typic Udorthents) de la Amazonia colombiana sobre el uso eficiente de nutrientes (uen), en términos de la eficiencia agronómica (ea) y la eficiencia de recuperación del fertilizante (erf) para nitrógeno (N), fósforo (P) y potasio (K), y cuatro clones universales de cacao fino de sabor y aroma. Se utilizó un diseño en bloques completos al azar con arreglo factorial, siendo el factor A cuatro clones (a1: ICS-1, a2: CCN-51, a3: ICS-39, y a4: TSH-565) y el factor B cuatro niveles de fertilidad (b1: control absoluto; b2: suelo 90 días después de encalado (dde); b3: control absoluto más N - P - K, hasta alcanzar los requerimientos del cultivo; b4: b2 más N - P - K, hasta alcanzar los requerimientos del cultivo). Los resultados muestran que el encalado y la fertilización afectaron el uen y el rendimiento; mientras tanto, el más bajo rendimiento se presentó en b1 para todos los clones, sugiriendo que la fertilidad del suelo natural no es suficiente para el desarrollo del cultivo de cacao; además, el clon CCN-51 mostró mayor habilidad en el uso de nutrientes que los restantes clones. En este sentido, los cuatro clones respondieron de forma diferencial de acuerdo con la ea y la erf, evidenciando la influencia del genotipo y de las condiciones edafoclimáticas de la zona, así como las preferencias específicas de pH y nutrientes para cada clon.

Denominación de origen de cacao ecuatoriano: ¿Un aporte de marketing global?

La presente investigación radica en la importancia del cacao fino de aroma ecuatoriano que simboliza el 60% del mercado a nivel mundial. A través de un estudio descriptivo- correlacional, multivariado e instrumentos de recolección aplicados como entrevistas se evidenció las características del cacao ecuatoriano, cotizado por sus excelentes notas florales base para la elaboración de subproductos en Europa, Norteamérica y Asia. Con la intención de incentivar el comercio internacional, el Instituto Ecuatoriano de Propiedad Intelectual (IEPI), prescribió la denominación de origen “Cacao Arriba” que permitió su certificación para todo el cacao fino de aroma que procediera del territorio nacional. Entre los resultados hallados se identificó que en el caso de Ecuador la “zona arriba”, reconocida desde la época de la colonia, representa a la Cuenca baja del rio Guayas que conforman las provincias de Los Ríos y Guayas, la cual posee características particulares por la influencia climática, la corriente de Humboldt y El Niño. Sin embargo la denominación de origen en el Ecuador se expone con la finalidad de promoción como un fruto con garantía de procedencia que contradice las características propias de discriminación geográfica que son específicas de una zona estrictamente delimitada, su impacto entre los agricultores no trascendió, mientras que para el mercado internacional no es una evidencia de características organolépticas que garanticen el origen, características y calidad específico del producto; por lo tantobajo esos parametros no representa una estrategia de marketing global.

Comparative Study of Solar Drying of Cocoa Beans: Two Methods Used in Colombian Rural Areas

In Colombia, the production of cocoa beans is an important export business classified as “fine cocoa” type by the International Cocoa Organization (ICCO). Drying for agricultural products is one of the most cost-effective applications of solar energy and the drying methods for cocoa beans are traditional and vary with geographical locality. Cocoa beans are dried after fermentation in order to reduce the moisture content, being the open-air solar drying (direct solar dryer) and the greenhouse drying (plastic roof solar dryer) two methods used in colombian rural areas. However, in the Caribbean region of Colombia is widely used, by rural farmers, the open-air solar drying. This method is economic but susceptible to contamination with foreign materials, insects and rodents, affecting the quality of the beans. This work presents the construction of a plastic roof solar dryer for drying cocoa beans in a farm that use direct solar dryer. The moisture content of the cocoa beans were determined using a MB 45 Halogen Ohaus moisture analyzer. The moisture content was reduced from 58 % to 7 % in 6 d for the open-air solar drying (drying constant, k = 0.76 d-1), while the greenhouse drying took only 4 d (drying constant, k = 1.68 d-1) and produced better quality cocoa beans, protected from direct solar radiation, environmental pollution and animal contact. Technical and economical results indicate that greenhouse drying is feasible for rural farmers in the Caribbean region of Colombia.

Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm by Lactobacillus isolated from fine cocoa.

BackgroundBiofilm production represents an important virulence and pathogenesis factor for Staphylococcus aureus. The formation of biofilms on medical devices is a major concern in hospital environments, as they can become a constant source of infection. Probiotic bacteria, such as Lactobacillus fermentum and L. plantarum, have been found to inhibit biofilm formation; however little is known about the underlying mechanism. In this study, we tested the activity of supernatants produced by L. fermentum TCUESC01 and L. plantarum TCUESC02, isolated during the fermentation of fine cocoa, against S. aureus CCMB262 biofilm production. We measured inhibition of biofilm formation in vitro and analyzed biofilm structure by confocal and electronic microscopy. Additionally, we quantified the expression of S. aureus genes icaA and icaR involved in the synthesis of the biofilm matrix by real-time PCR.ResultsBoth Lactobacillus supernatants inhibited S. aureus growth. However, only L. fermentum TCUESC01 significantly reduced the thickness of the biofilm, from 14 μm to 2.83 μm (at 18 mg∙mL−1, 90 % of the minimum inhibitory concentration, MIC), 3.12 μm (at 14 mg∙mL−1, 70 % of the MIC), and 5.21 μm (at 10 mg∙mL−1, 50 % of the MIC). Additionally, L. fermentum TCUESC01 supernatant modulated the expression of icaA and icaR.Conclusions L. fermentum TCUESC01 reduces the formation of S. aureus biofilm under subinhibitory conditions. Inhibition of biofilm production probably depends on modulation of the ica operon.

Performance of Roasted Cocoa Bean Winnower For Small Holder Chocolate Producers

Cocoa bean winnowing has a function to separate cocoa nibs from shell after roasting process of dry bean. Nibs are further processed into fine cocoa liquor by refining process. The aim of this experiment was to evaluate working performance of a home-scale winnower to separate shell from nibs with minimum shell parchment content in cocoa nibs. This experiment was conducted in Postharvest Laboratory at the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute using roasted cocoa bean grade A according to standard of SNI 2323:2008/ Amd1:2010 with shell content of 15% originated from Forastero cocoa. Working performance of the home-scale winnower was evaluated based on shell parchment content in the output, its capacity, energy consumption and power transfer efficiency value by several air suction rates as variable. Data were analyzed using regression and variance analysis to evaluate the influence of the rate and to determine the optimum machine operation. Results of regression and variance analysis from winnowing experiment with air suction rate of 0.54 m/s; 0.63 m/s; 0.72 m/s and 0.90 m/s indicated that shell parchment content in cocoa nibs and power transfer efficiency value were affected by the rate. The optimum machine performance was obtained on 0.72 m/s of air suction rate with total winnowing capacity was 2.615 kg/hour, energy consumption of 132 Watt, power transfer efficiency value of 61.01% and shell parchment content was 1.06%. Shell parchment content in cocoa nibs was appropriate regarding to the SNI standard with maximum content of 1.75%.

Technology Assessment on the Use of Cocoa Fine

The fine cocoa beans are a great international interest, for its particular characteristics of giving flavor to products. Then, the objective of this paper was to analyze the potential and technological developments, through patent applications in relation to cocoa. The survey was conducted from the combination of a keyword with the International Patent Code (IPC), the databases of the INPI patents and Espacenet . The most widely used CIP was the A23G1/00. It was observed a total of deposited documents between 1 and 4 per year, during the period 1912-2000. In 2001, was found a greater number of patent applications (9). The Great Britain stood out as the largest holder of patents relating to cocoa and cocoa products (40). It was noted that 98.39 % of patent documents in Espacenet were directed mainly to the food industry sector and only 1.61% were intended for the pharmaceutical industry . The Brazil didn't have many deposited patents documents, so, there is a need for greater incentives for research and development (R&D). DOI: 10.5935/1984-6835.20160078

DNA-based differentiation of the Ecuadorian cocoa types CCN-51 and Arriba based on sequence differences in the chloroplast genome.

Two cocoa types, Arriba and CCN-51, are being cultivated in Ecuador. With regard to the unique aroma, Arriba is considered a fine cocoa type, while CCN-51 is a bulk cocoa because of its weaker aroma. Because it is being assumed that Arriba is mixed with CCN-51, there is an interest in the analytical differentiation of the two types. Two methods to identify CCN-51 adulterations in Arriba cocoa were developed on the basis of differences in the chloroplast DNA. On the one hand, a different repeat of the sequence TAAAG in the inverted repeat region results in a different length of amplicons for the two cocoa types, which can be detected by agarose gel electrophoresis, capillary gel electrophoresis, and denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography. On the other hand, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between the CCN-51 and Arriba sequences represent restriction sites, which can be used for restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. A semi-quantitative analysis based on these SNPs is feasible. A method for an exact quantitation based on these results is not realizable. These sequence variations were confirmed for a comprehensive cultivar collection of Arriba and CCN-51, for both bean and leaf samples.

Near infrared spectroscopy as a new tool to determine cocoa fermentation levels through ammonia nitrogen quantification

Fermentation is a key step in obtaining fine cocoa through the formation of potent aroma precursors. The fermentation level of cocoa beans is traditionally assessed by measuring the amount of ammonia nitrogen (NH3) using the time-consuming Conway technique. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), a rapid and efficient tool, was used to analyze NH3 levels in several hundred cocoa samples at different fermentation levels from six geographical origins. Fermentation levels were expressed as the number of fermentation days and sum of temperatures. The correlation between Conway results and NIRS spectra enabled the development of a reliable and accurate NIRS calibration to determine NH3 content. We confirm that NH3 is produced during fermentation and its amount depends on the fermentation time, sum of temperatures and geographical origin. NIRS could be used by chocolate manufacturers as a routine method to sort cocoa samples according to their level of fermentation.

Unsustainable development: Alternative food networks and the Ecuadorian Federation of Cocoa Producers, 1995–2010

Although alternative trade have become a de facto prescription for any location where there is a need to conciliate economic interest with conservation imperatives, the discursive concept of equalitarian partnerships hides the fact that what for consumers is a matter of choice, for producers is a matter of survival. Producers must meet the demands of their partners to gain access to capital and markets. We explore the results of these unequal alliances with a case study centered on the experiences of the Ecuadorian Federation of Cocoa Producers (FEDECADE) and its 15 years long experience with alternative trade/sustainable development projects focused on the shade-grown fine cocoa variety known as “Nacional.” We found that the external agencies that implemented alternative trade in FEDECADE made assumptions, none of which were fully meet at the end of the projects. Our findings point out to the paradoxical nature of alternative trade schemes, because the success of a scheme ultimately leads to loss of profitability from a farmer's perspective.

Assessing Genetic Diversity in Java Fine-Flavor Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Germplasm by Using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers

Indonesia is the 3 rd largest cocoa-producing country in the world. The cacao varieties currently cultivated in Indonesia are inter-hybrids of various clones introduced from the Americas since the 16th century. Among them, is a well- known fine cocoa specialty product which was originally selected from crosses between Criollo trees and an unknown parent at Djati Roenggo, Java in 1912. Using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, we analyzed the genetic diversity and population structure of fine-flavored cacao germplasm from Java, and compared the results with those of bulk cocoa in the same region. Although a high level of heterozygosity was observed in the fine-flavored cacao clones (Ho=0.660; He=0.674), indicating their hybrid origin, the allele richness in the Java cacao germplasm was moderate (7.6 alleles per locus). Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) showed that the genetic structure of Java cocoa is heterogeneous, including genetic background of Trinitario, Upper Amazon and Lower Amazon Forastero. Parentage analysis supported the passport records of parental contribution from Venezuelan landraces to some DR clones (DR 1 and DR 38), which are the main clones used to produce Java cocoa, but excluded the direct parentage of pure Criollo. Sibship reconstruction indicated that the DR clones did not originate from a single cross as previously considered. The resultant information improved our analysis of the diversity and ancestry of Java cocoa. It also suggested the need for broadening the genetic background in the Java cocoa germplasm.

Tracing the native ancestors of the modern Theobroma cacao L. population in Ecuador

The native Theobroma cacao L. population from Ecuador, known as Nacional, is famous for its fine cocoa flavour. From the beginning of the twentieth century, however, it has been subjected to genetic erosion due principally to successive introductions of foreign germplasm whose hybrid descendants gradually replaced the native plantations, implying a decrease in cocoa quality. We attempted to trace this native cacao within a wide pool of modern Ecuadorian cacao population. Three hundred and twenty-two cacao accessions collected from different geographical areas along the pacific coast of Ecuador and maintained in two living collections were analysed using 40 simple-sequence repeat markers. Most of Ecuadorian cacao accessions displayed a high diversity and heterozygosity level. A factorial analysis of correspondence (FAC) showed a continuous variation among them, with a few ones, grouped at an extreme side of the FAC cloud, showing higher levels of homozygosity and lower introgression level by foreign cacaos. A paternity analysis revealed that these highly homozygous individuals are the most probable ancestors of the modern Nacional hybrid pool. These particular accessions studied could represent the native Nacional cacao present in Ecuador before the foreign introductions. Their identification will help to conserve valuable genetic material and to improve cocoa quality in new cacao varieties.

Genetic differentiation among Ecuadorian Theobroma cacao L. accessions using DNA and morphological analyses

The quality of Ecuadorian cacao is presently threatened by the introduction of hybrid material. An estimation of genetic diversity in Ecuador is required in order to avoid the loss of fine flavored cocoa. Genetic variability amongst 60 Ecuadorian genotypes of Theobroma cacao has been evaluated using molecular and phenotypic markers. The two distance matrices derived from the molecular and phenotypic data were found to be correlated (R2 = 0.5). Dynamic clustering analyses classified the genotypes in two or three groups depending on the markers used. The genotypes coming from Sebasti{an Arteaga (SA) and Balao Chico (BCH) plantations appeared related to each other suggesting a common genetic origin. They also may be considered as a distinct group with high RFLP homozygosity. The EETP (Estaci}on Experimental Tropical Pichilingue of Ecuador) collection was comprised of more variable genotypes possessing variable heterozygosity levels. The low heterozygous genotypes may be genetically related to SA and BCH trees, whereas the higher heterozygous genotypes may have resulted from hybridizations between original Nacional material of Ecuador and genotypes imported from Trinidad at the beginning of the century. Thus genetic introgression may have occurred giving rise to a range of variation between Nacional and hybrid forms.