Filariasis Research Articles

Points to Consider When Establishing and Rearing Culex Mosquitoes in the Laboratory.

Culex mosquitoes transmit several pathogens to humans and animals, including viruses that cause West Nile fever and St. Louis encephalitis and filarial nematodes that cause canine heartworm and elephantiasis. Additionally, these mosquitoes have a cosmopolitan distribution and provide interesting models for understanding population genetics, overwintering dormancy, disease transmission, and other important and ecological questions. However, unlike Aedes mosquitoes that produce eggs that can be stored for weeks at a time, no obvious "stopping" point exists in the development of Culex mosquitoes. Therefore, these mosquitoes require nearly continuous care and attention. Here, we describe some general considerations when rearing laboratory colonies of Culex mosquitoes. We highlight different methods so that readers may choose what works best for their experimental needs and laboratory infrastructure. We hope that this information will enable additional scientists to conduct laboratory research on these important disease vectors.

Discovery of potent inhibitors targeting Glutathione S-transferase of Wuchereria bancrofti: a step toward the development of effective anti-filariasis drugs.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is one of the major health problems for the human kind in developing countries including India. LF is caused by three major nematodes namely Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori. The recent statistics of World Health Organization (WHO) showed that 51 million people were affected and 863 million people from 47 countries around worldwide remain threatened by LF. Among them, 90% of the filarial infection was caused by the nematode W. bancrofti. Approved drugs were available for the treatment of LF but many of them developed drug resistance and no longer effective in all stages of the infection. In the current research work, we explored the Glutathione S-transferase (GST) of W. bancrofti, the key enzyme responsible for detoxification that catalyzes the conjugation of reduced GSH (glutathione) to xenobiotic compounds. Initially, we analyzed the stability of the WbGST through 200 ns MD simulation and further structure-based virtual screening approach was applied by targeting the substrate binding site to identify the potential leads from small molecule collection. The in silico ADMET profiles for the top-ranked hits were predicted and the predicted non-toxic lead molecules showed the highest docking score in the range of -12.72 kcal/mol to -11.97 kcal/mol. The cross docking of the identified hits with human GST revealed the potential binding specificity of the hits toward WbGST. Through WbGST-lead complex simulation, the lead molecules were observed to be stable and also intactly bound within the binding site of WbGST. Based on the computational results, the five predicted non-toxic molecules were selected for the in vitro assay. The molecules showed significant percentage of inhibition against the filarial worm Setaria digitata which is the commonly used model organism to evaluate the filarial activity. In addition, the molecules also showed better IC50 than the standard drug ivermectin. The identified lead molecules will lay a significant insight for the development of new drugs with higher specificity and lesser toxicity to control and treat filarial infections.

Subcutaneous Human Dirofilariasis A Rare Case Report from Mumbai, Maharashtra

Subcutaneous human dirofilariasis is caused by the zoonotic filariae, Dirofilaria repens. The frequency of reports is increasing in literature during the last few years and is considered by some authors as an emerging zoonosis.In India, majority of the cases have been reported from Kerala, case reports from other parts of the country is rare. Here, we report a case to focus attention on this rare cause of a subcutaneous nodule which is often misdiagnosed or overlooked. We report a rare case of subcutaneous Dirofilariasis from Mumbai, Maharashtra. A 15-year-old boy who experienced a cosmetic subcutaneous cheek swelling on the left side of face, since 1.5 years. No pain, no sinus and no discharge. A complete hemogram was done which was normal. No eosinophilia was seen. Since the clinical diagnosis was a soft tissue lesion, a radiograph was not taken. The lesion was excised under local anaesthesia, which revealed a filarial nematode compatible with adult gravid female of the Dirofilaria repens, a zoonotic filariasis that causes subcutaneous dirofilariasis in dogs and cats.

Pangenomic analysis of Wolbachia provides insight into the evolution of host adaptation and cytoplasmic incompatibility factor genes.

The genus Wolbachia provides a typical example of intracellular bacteria that infect the germline of arthropods and filarial nematodes worldwide. Their importance as biological regulators of invertebrates, so it is particularly important to study the evolution, divergence and host adaptation of these bacteria at the genome-wide level. Here, we used publicly available Wolbachia genomes to reconstruct their evolutionary history and explore their adaptation under host selection. Our findings indicate that segmental and single-gene duplications, such as DNA methylase, bZIP transcription factor, heat shock protein 90, in single monophyletic Wolbachia lineages (including supergroups A and B) may be responsible for improving the ability to adapt to a broad host range in arthropod-infecting strains. In contrast to A strains, high genetic diversity and rapidly evolving gene families occur in B strains, which may promote the ability of supergroup B strains to adapt to new hosts and their large-scale spreading. In addition, we hypothesize that there might have been two independent horizontal transfer events of cif genes in two sublineages of supergroup A strains. Interestingly, during the independent evolution of supergroup A and B strains, the rapid evolution of cif genes in supergroup B strains resulted in the loss of their functional domain, reflected in a possible decrease in the proportion of induced cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) strains. This present study highlights for reconstructing of evolutionary history, addressing host adaptation-related evolution and exploring the origin and divergence of CI genes in each Wolbachia supergroup. Our results thus not only provide a basis for further exploring the evolutionary history of Wolbachia adaptation under host selection but also reveal a new research direction for studying the molecular regulation of Wolbachia- induced cytoplasmic incompatibility.

Antibiotic resistance and mecA characterization of Staphylococcus hominis from filarial lymphedema patients in the Ahanta West District, Ghana: A cross-sectional study.

Filarial infections affect over 150 million people in the tropics. One of the major forms of filarial pathologies is lymphedema; a condition where the immune response is significantly altered, resulting in changes in the normal flora. Staphylococcus hominis, a human skin commensal, can also be pathogenic in immunocompromised individuals. Therefore, there is the possibility that S. hominis could assume a different behavior in filarial lymphedema patients. To this end, we investigated the levels of antibiotic resistance and extent of mecA gene carriage in S. hominis among individuals presenting with filarial lymphedema in rural Ghana. We recruited 160 individuals with stages I-VII lymphedema, in a cross-sectional study in the Ahanta West District of the Western Region of Ghana. Swabs from lymphedematous limb ulcers, pus, and cutaneous surfaces were cultured using standard culture-based techniques. The culture isolates were subjected to Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry for bacterial identification. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) was performed using the Kirby-Bauer method. mecA genes were targeted by polymerase chain reaction for strains that were cefoxitin resistant. In all, 112 S. hominis were isolated. The AST results showed resistance to chloramphenicol (87.5%), tetracycline (83.3%), penicillin (79.2%), and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole (45.8%). Of the 112 strains of S. hominis, 51 (45.5%) were resistant to cefoxitin, and 37 (72.5%) of the cefoxitin-resistant S. hominis haboured the mecA gene. This study indicates a heightened level of methicillin-resistant S. hominis isolated among filarial lymphedema patients. As a result, opportunistic infections of S. hominis among the already burdened filarial lymphedema patients in rural Ghana may have reduced treatment success with antibiotics.

Blood parasites: morphological identification of filarial infections in blood smears

Identification of microfilaria seen in blood films may be the only method available to make a diagnosis of some filarial infections. The low incidence of these infections in Australia and lack of exposure to the features to identify microfilaria is becoming more challenging for microscopists. Images taken from case studies collected for more than 50 years have been compiled to show the differences between the morphology of different species of microfilaria in the blood.

Description of potential vectors of zoonotic filarial nematodes, Brugia pahangi, Setaria digitata, and Setaria labiatopapillosa in Thai mosquitoes

Filariasis is classified as a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by several filarial nematodes. The disease is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Understanding the relationship between mosquito vectors, filarial parasites, and vertebrate hosts is therefore essential for determining the probability of disease transmission and, correspondingly, developing effective strategies for prevention and control of diseases. In this study, we aimed to investigate the infection of zoonotic filarial nematodes in field-caught mosquitoes, observe the potential vectors of filaria parasites in Thailand using a molecular-based survey, conduct a study of host-parasite relationship, and propose possible coevolution of the parasites and their hosts. Mosquitoes were collected around cattle farms in Bangkok, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Ratchaburi, and Lampang provinces from May to December 2021 using a CDC Backpack aspirator for 20–30 minutes in each area (intra-, peri-, and wild environment). All mosquitoes were identified and morphologically dissected to demonstrate the live larvae of the filarial nematode. Furthermore, all samples were tested for filarial infections using PCR and sequencing. A total of 1,273 adult female mosquitoes consisted of five species: 37.78% Culex quinquefasciatus, 22.47% Armigeres subalbatus, 4.71% Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, 19.72% Anopheles peditaeniatus, and 15.32% An. dirus. Larvae of Brugia pahangi and Setaria labiatopapillosa were found in Ar. subalbatus and An. dirus mosquitoes, respectively. All mosquito samples were processed by PCR of ITS1 and COXI genes for filaria nematode species identification. Both genes showed that B. pahangi was found in four mosquitoes of Ar. subalbatus from Nakhon Si Thammarat, S. digitata was detected in three samples of An. peditaeniatus from Lampang, and S. labiatopapillosa was detected in one of An. dirus from Ratchaburi. However, filarial nematodes were not found in all Culex species. This study infers that this is the first data regarding the circulation of Setaria parasites in Anopheles spp. from Thailand. The phylogenetic trees of the hosts and parasites are congruent. Moreover, the data could be used to develop more effective prevention and control strategies for zoonotic filarial nematodes before they spread in Thailand.

Helminth Community Structure of Tits Cyanistes caeruleus and Parus major (Paridae) during Their Autumn Migration on the Southern Baltic Coast.

The research problem undertaken in this study is to determine the scale of infection of Eurasian blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus and Great tit Parus major and the biological diversity of their internal parasites, helminths. The aim of the study is to gain new knowledge about the structure of the helminth communities of the Eurasian blue tit and Great tit on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea during autumn migration to their wintering grounds. Helminths of tits were collected in 2008-2012 on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in Poland. PAST v. 2.11 software was used for the calculations. Barcoding DNA was used to identify trematodes initially classified based on morphological characters to the genera Leucochloridium and Urogonimus. Cestodes Anonchotaenia globata were recorded for the first time in Poland. The Eurasian blue tit is a new host in Poland for three species of helminths: cestode Monosertum parinum and filarial nematodes, Cardiofilaria pavlovskyi, and Diplotriaena henryi. The Great tit is a new host in Poland for trematode Urogonimus macrostomus, cestode A. globata and M. parinum, and filarial nematode Diplotriaena obtusa. The nematode C. pavlovskyi was the species most frequently recorded in both host species. A high degree of similarity was found between the component communities and infracommunities of helminths in Eurasian blue tit and Great tit. The new information provided in this study has increased our knowledge of the transmission of helminths in Central Europe.

Epidemiological Assessment of Lymphatic Filariasis in Pekalongan City, Central Java, Indonesia

Lymphatic filariasis is an infectious disease caused by filarial worms and transmitted by mosquitoes. Pekalongan City is the highest filariasis endemic area caused by Wuchereria bancrofti in Central Java. This is indicated by the microfilaria rate of 2.8% in 2016. To reduce the number of filariasis cases, mass drug administration has been carried out since 2011. The aim of the study was to describe the epidemiology of the distribution of filariasis endemic areas, microfilaria rate, treatment coverage. mass and the correlation of sociodemographic factors with the incidence of filariasis. The research variables used secondary data in the form of filariasis cases, education, population density, gender and land use. Data analysis used Spearman's correlation. The results showed that cases of filariasis were spread across all districts with an increasing number of endemic areas during 2011-2016. Efforts to mass treatment have not been successful (mf rate > 1% and treatment coverage < 65%) and must be repeated in 2017-2019. Sociodemographic factors were not related to the incidence of clinical or chronic cases of filariasis. To accelerate the achievement of filariasis elimination, it is necessary to add vector control efforts in integrated filariasis management.

Pathology and pathogenesis of cutaneous lesions in beef cattle associated with buffalo fly infestation.

Haematobia irritans exigua, commonly known as buffalo fly, is the major hematophagous ectoparasite of north Australian cattle herds. Lesions associated with buffalo fly infestation are generally alopecic, hyperkeratotic, or scab encrusted wounds with variable hemorrhagic ulceration. Buffalo flies can transmit a filarial nematode, Stephanofilaria sp., which has been implicated in the pathogenesis of buffalo fly lesions, but Stephanofilaria infection has not been detected in all lesions suggesting that other causal factors may be involved. This study characterized the pathology of buffalo fly lesions to identify the role of Stephanofilaria in lesion development, as well as to identify other potential agents. Lesion biopsies were collected from north and south Queensland and tested for the presence of Stephanofilaria by qPCR. Each lesion was scored grossly (0-4) for hemorrhage, ulceration, exudation, and alopecia. Lesions were also scored microscopically (0-4) for epidermal and dermal damage and inflammatory characters. Stephanofilaria infection was detected in 31% of lesion biopsies. Grossly, Stephanofilaria-infected lesions had significantly larger lesion area and higher scores for alopecia and hyperkeratosis than lesions where no nematodes were found (P < 0.05). Histologically, epidermal, dermal, and adnexal damage was significantly higher in Stephanofilaria infected lesions than lesions without nematodes. Eosinophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes were significantly more abundant in Stephanofilaria positive lesions as compared to negative lesions. This study also noted bacterial infection with colonies of coccoid bacteria, observed in skin sections from 19 lesions. Grossly, lesions with bacterial infection had significantly higher ulceration scores compared to Stephanofilaria positive lesions, and histologically epidermal disruption was significantly greater in bacteria-infected lesions. We found no evidence of bacteria or Stephanofilaria infection in 49% of the lesions assessed and tissue damage patterns and eosinophilic inflammation suggested hypersensitivity to buffalo fly feeding as a possible cause of these lesions. These findings suggest that although the presence of Stephanofilaria infection may increase the severity of lesion pathology, it is not essential for lesion development. These outcomes also suggest a potential role of bacteria and hypersensitivity in pathogenesis of some lesion. A better understanding of buffalo fly lesion etiology will contribute to the optimal treatment and control programmes.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on People With Lymphedema in an Endemic Area for Lymphatic Filariasis in Brazil.

Objectives: To investigate the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic on lymphedema patients from an endemic area of lymphatic filariasis. Methods: The study descriptive compared sociodemographic and clinical aspects, risk of falling and quality of life, prior and during the COVID-19 pandemic in 28 lymphedema patients, older than 18years old and under investigation of filarial infection. For the evaluation of functional mobility, the Time Up and Go test and The Medical Outcome Study Short Form-36 Health for quality of life, was used. Results: An increase in interdigital and dermal lesions, a higher frequency of acute dermatolymphangioadenitis crises and risk of falling, worsening of quality of life in the domains of physical functioning, general health, vitality, and mental health during the pandemic was observed. Conclusion: Our findings of clinical worsening and quality of life of patients during the COVID-19 pandemic indicate the need to reinforce the goal of the Lymphatic Filariasis Program regarding the follow-up of these patients in the actions of the Global Program for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis, due to the discontinuity in the care during the pandemic.

Application of loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for the detection of Onchocerca volvulus, Loa loa and Mansonella perstans in humans and vectors.

Conventional diagnosis of filarial infections is based on morphological identification of microfilariae using light microscopy and requires considerable expertise, is time-consuming, and can be subjective. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has advantages over microscopy or PCR because of its operational simplicity, rapidity and versatility of readout options. LAMP assays represent a major step forward in improved filarial diagnostic tools suitable for low resource settings and field applicability. The study goal was to retrospectively evaluate the performance and suitability of the O-150, RF4, and Mp419 LAMP assays for diagnosing Onchocerca volvulus, Loa loa and Mansonella perstans infections, respectively, in humans and vectors under experimental and natural field conditions. Surveys were conducted in four health districts of Cameroon using skin snip and thick blood film methods to detect skin (O. volvulus) and blood (L. loa and M. perstans) dwelling microfilaria in humans. Engorged vectors (Simulium spp., Chrysops spp., and Culicoides spp.) were evaluated by LAMP. Dissected, wild-caught vectors were also analyzed. LAMP showed a prevalence of 40.4% (O. volvulus), 17.8% (L. loa) and 36.6% (M. perstans) versus 20.6% (O. volvulus), 17.4% (L. loa) and 33.8% (M. perstans) with microscopy. Simulium spp. were dissected for microscopy and pooled for LAMP. The O-150 LAMP assay infection rate was 4.3% versus 4.1% by microscopy. Chrysops spp. were dissected and analyzed individually in the LAMP assay. The RF4 LAMP assay infection rate was 23.5% versus 3.3% with microscopy. The RF4 LAMP assay also detected parasites in Chrysops spp. fed on low microfilaremic volunteers. The Mp419 LAMP assay infection rate was 0.2% for C. milnei and 0.04% for C. grahamii, while three other species were LAMP-negative. The sensitivity, species specificity, rapidity and ease of its use of these filarial LAMP assays, and validation of their performance in the field support use as alternatives to microscopy as diagnostic and surveillance tools in global health programs aimed to eliminate onchocerciasis.

Invasive Aedes japonicus Mosquitoes Dominate the Aedes Fauna Collected with Gravid Traps in Wooster, Northeastern Ohio, USA

Aedes japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae), or the Asian rock pool mosquito, is an invasive mosquito in Europe and America. It was first detected outside of Asia in 1990 in Oceania. It has since expanded to North America and Europe in 1998 and 2000, respectively. Even though it is classified as a secondary vector of pathogens, it is competent to several arboviruses and filarial worms, and it is contributing to the transmission of La Crosse virus (LACV) and West Nile virus (WNV). In this study, CDC light, BG-sentinel, and gravid traps were used to collect mosquitoes between June and October 2021, in Wooster, Northeastern Ohio, USA. Morphological identification or/and Sanger sequencing were performed to identify the collected mosquitoes. Our results revealed that (adult) Ae. japonicus mosquitoes were the most abundant mosquito species collected with gravid traps in Wooster in 2021, confirming its establishment in Ohio. Molecular analyses of Ae. japonicus showed 100% nucleotide similarity with Ae. japonicus collected in Iowa (USA) and Canada, suggesting multiple introductions. Its presence may increase the risk of future arbovirus outbreaks in Wooster, Ohio. This study stresses the importance of actively monitoring the density and distribution of all members of the Ae. japonicus complex.

Molecular detection of Cercopithifilaria, Cruorifilaria and Dipetalonema-like filarial nematodes in ticks of French Guiana.

Filarial nematodes of the Dipetalonema lineage are widespread parasites and include some species that are transmitted by ticks. In this study, we conducted a large molecular survey of ticks in French Guiana, South America, to understand the overall diversity of tick-borne filarioids in this remote region largely covered by dense tropical forests. Out of 682 ticks belonging to 22 species and 6 genera, 21 ticks (3.1%) of the species Amblyomma cajennense, A. oblongoguttatum, A. romitii, Ixodes luciae and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato were positive for infection by filarioids. Molecular typing and phylogenetic analysis identified all these filarioids as members of the Dipetalonema lineage. While the filarioid of R. sanguineus sensu lato is a previously described species, the canine worm Cercopithifilaria bainae Almeida & Vicente, 1984, all other filarioids detected in this study are related but distinct to already known species in the genera Cercopithifilaria, Cruorifilaria and Dipetalonema. Their vertebrate host range may include a wide variety of mammals present in French Guiana, but dogs, capybaras, and opossums are the best candidate hosts for some of these filarioids. Although the detection of members of the Dipetalonema lineage in ticks of significant medical or veterinary interest is of concern, the risk of contracting a tick-borne filarial infection is still largely unknown. The pathogenicity of these filarioids, their epidemiology, developmental cycles, and mechanisms of transmission by South American tick species now require further study.

Icosiella neglecta (Nematoda, Onchocercidae) in Ukraine: Occurrence, Hosts, Morphological and Molecular Characterisation

Icosiella neglecta (Diesing, 1851) is a filarial nematode infecting anuran amphibians in the western Palaearctic. In the present survey, we found I. neglecta in 27 out of 28 localities in eight regions of Ukraine. In those localities, 56.5 % of sampled green frogs (Pelophylax esculentus complex) were infected. The infection prevalence was similar in the two parental species, P. ridibundus (Pallas) and P. lessonae (Camerano), and their hybrid form, P. esculentus (Linnaeus), while the infection intensity was comparatively higher in P. ridibundus, as well as in the samples including both P. ridibundus and P. esculentus. Morphological examination of 40 females and 80 males of I. neglecta confirmed the consistency of main qualitative characters, whereas most metrical characters appeared to be rather variable and related to body length. Muscular oesophagus dimensions and spicule length in males were found to be the least variable. In the studied sample of males, 54 % had a longer spicule on the left side and a shorter one on the right side; the other 46 % had a longer spicule on the right side. Our molecular study using mitochondrial COI gene sequences confirmed the strong genetic similarity of I. neglecta populations in Ukraine and most other parts of its distribution area. A single nuclear 18S sequence generated was identical to one previously deposited in GenBank, originating from Ukraine.

Microfilariae infection by Acanthocheilonema reconditum and Dirofilaria immitis and their molecular detection in a dog with lymphoma: Case report

Objective: Microfilariae parasites are common in tropical regions, and some species are reported as potentially zoonotic. The diagnosis of filarial infection in dogs by cytology or hematologic tech¬niques showed lower sensibility and specificity, which may result in misdiagnosis. Thus, molecular techniques seem to be an alternative to identifying and detecting microfilariae infections. On the other hand, lymphoma is one of the main tumors in domestic animals, with a high prevalence in domestic canines. This study aims to report a mixed infection with microfilariae in a dog with lymphoma, emphasizing its diagnosis and the possible role of this infection in the development of the neoplasia. Materials and Methods: An 8-year-old male mixed breed dog was referred to consultation due to the presence of lethargy, recumbency, skin ulceration lesions, nonspecific pain manifestations, emesis, myoclonus in the left temporalis muscle, and seizures. Routine blood and biochemistry tests were normal, and cytology of the skin evidenced a microfilariae infection. The dog died due to a cardiorespiratory arrest, and tissue sampling was done for histopathology and molecular analysis at the necropsy examination. Results: Skin lesions were related to a microfilarial pyogranuloma related to Acanthocheilonema reconditum. Histopathology of the spleen and liver revealed a diffuse lymphoma composed of blast cells and large lymphocytes, distributed diffusely in the parenchyma and surrounding the vasculature. In the skin, microfilariae were seen in some superficial capillaries. Conclusion: This study describes a microfilariae mixed infection with A. reconditum and Dirofilaria immitis in a dog with a lymphoma and its molecular detection. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first report of a mixed microfilariae infection in a tumor of a dog and highlights the use of molecular techniques, i.e., polymerase chain reaction, for an accurate diagnosis.

Prevalence of Tick Species Infesting Domesticated Animals in Pakistan

Ticks transmit a variety of pathogens, including viruses, spirochetes, bacteria, rickettsia, protozoa, filarial nematodes, and others, only behind mosquitoes, that result in human and animal mortality. Tick infestation poses severe threats to livestock farming, which plays a crucial role in Pakistan's rural economy. However, more research needs to be done in the study area of Pakistan on the diversity of tick species and the pathogens carried by ticks. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of ticks in Pakistan. A total of 226 tick specimens were collected from 1023 animals (136 sheep and 147 goats, 329 cows, 411 buffaloes), examined in the study area. It showed that total eight species belonging to four genera were collected and identified. The identified species were Dermacentor marginatus, Hyalomma anatolicum, Hy. Dromedarii, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, R. turanicus, R. appendiculatus, R. annulatus and Haemaphysalis punctate. Among collected tick species, Hy. anatolicum was the most widely distributed tick species. The maximum tick prevalence was recorded on buffaloes 87 (38.49%) followed by goats 53 (23.45%), cattle or cows 51 (22.56%) and sheep 36 (15.92%). Male animals were least infested with tick species than female animals while maximum female ticks were recorded in the study area than male. In order to control ticks in the study area, appropriate methods are required.

Serosurvey of Canine Dirofilariasis in a Population of Southern Guatemala

Introduction: Canine dirofilariasis, is a vector-borne disease caused by the parasitic filarial nematode named Dirofilaria immitis. Cardiopulmonary dirofilariasis is a worldwide distributed disease affecting domestic and wild canines as well as felines, causing pulmonary or cutaneous infections in humans. In recent years, scientists have reported the importance of investigating human cases of dirofilariasis since it can be easily confused with lung disease. Guatemala has a high-density of the canine population. Few studies have reported a high prevalence of canine dirofilariasis; nevertheless, knowledge in Guatemala of Dirofilaria immitis is scarce and practically inexistent. Given this, the current study aimed to explore the circulation of antibodies against D. immitis in dogs in the southern part of Guatemala.&#x0D; Materials and methods: Data were recollected from 110 male and female dogs aged more than a year from various breeds in the village “El Brito”, Escuintla, Guatemala. One milliliter of blood was collected from each dog. The samples were analyzed using ELISA test to examine the presence of antibodies in adult worms.&#x0D; Results: The prevalence determined for antibodies against Dirofilaria immitis of sampled canines was 2.7%, and the most frequent age of the canines was 1-3 years old (85%).&#x0D; Conclusions: According to the obtained data, the prevalence of canine dirofilariasis in a southern region of Guatemala was low.

Anthocleista Djalonensis: A Review of Its Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Potentials

Anthocleista djalonensis is widely used in African folk medicine to treat conditions. This review aims to provide for the first time ethnopharmacological information while critically evaluating the traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological activities so as to unveil opportunities for future research. Ethno-medical uses of the, leaf, root and stem bark extracts include treatment of wound, constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery, abdominal pain, hepatitis, jaundice, cirrhosis, fungal skin infection, filarial worm infections, acute inflammation and boils on skin, anti-diabetes, antimalarial, anti-pyretic, anthelmintic, antimycobacterial, and anti-bacterial properties. Some of the compounds isolated are phthalide and xanthones sweroside, djalonenoside, lichex-anthone, stigmasterol, 3-oxo-Δ4′5-sitosterone, sitosterol, ursolicacid, djalonensin and D-(þ)-bornesitol. The pharmacological activities of the leaf, stem bark and root has been scientifically proven by in vitro and in vivo studies. The cytotoxic activity of the crude methanol extracts obtained from the stem, roots and leaves and three natural plant constituents (djalonenol, sweroside and djalonensone respectively) isolated from the extract had been evaluated in vitro. This review has been able to show the therapeutic potentials of Anthocleista djalonensis through its ethnobotanical and pharmacological uses.

Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis with Wolbachia Targets

Nematodes are the cause of filariasis. Tissue nematodes as the cause of lymphatic filariasis are 3 species, namely Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, Brugia timori.1 Lymphatic filariasis is the second largest cause of long-term disability, namely lymphedema of the extremities (elephantiasis) and hydrocele, especially in the tropics.2 Wolbachia bacteria are found in Onchocercidae, the family of filarial nematodes, including species that cause filarial disease in humans such as lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis. The symbiosis of Wolbachia and Onchocercidae shows that Wolbachia bacteria play a role in the treatment of filarial parasitic infections by using antibiotics such as tetracycline, doxycycline or rifampicin causing growth retardation and embryogenesis. 4 The long term use of antibiotics is feared to cause resistance to bacteria. Therefore, it is necessary to use antibiotics with a shorter time.