Ficus Research Articles

Phytochemical and Nutritional Profile of Ficus Capensis Stem Collected from Agbani, Enugu, South East Nigeria

Ficus capensis commonly called bush fig tree belongs to the family Moraceae and have been used for different medicinal purposes. This study aimed at determining the Proximate, Phytochemical, Vitamin and Mineral Compositions of Ficus capensis stem. The analyses were done using standard biochemical methods. The results of Proximate composition showed that the stem contained moisture (21.94 ± 0.10 %), Crude Fat (2.45 ± 0.21 %), Crude protein (15.24 ± 0.05%), Crude Fiber (32.55 ± 0.06 %), Carbohydrate (18.79 ± 0.34 %) and Ash (9.04 ± 0.12 %). The Total energy value was 158 KCal/100g. The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of Tannin (1.32 ± 0.01 mg/g), Alkaloid (0.55 ± 0.00 mg/g), Saponin (2.17 ± 0.00 mg/g), Glycoside (1.13 ± 0.00 mg/g), Terpenoids (0.10 ± 0.00 mg/g), Flavonoids (2.42 ± 0.02 mg/g), Steroids (0.54 ± 0.00 mg/) and Phenol (0.97 ± 0.00 mg/g). The result also revealed that the stem contained vitamins A (0.57 ± 0.02 mg/g), β-carotene (1.27 ± 0.02 mg/g), B1 (0.89 ± 0.02 mg/g), B2 (1.14 ± 0.01 mg/g), B3 (0.96 ± 0.01 mg/g), B6 (0.85 ± 0.01 mg/g) and B9 (1.28 ± 0.04 mg/g), C (0.81 ± 0.01 mg/g), D (0.26 ± 0.01 mg/g), E (0.85 ± 0.02 mg/g) and K (1.10 ± 0.02 mg/g). The Mineral composition include Calcium (34.01 mg/kg), Phosphorus (0.57 mg/kg), Chloride (2.56 mg/kg), Potassium (21.40 mg/kg), Sulphur (0.26 mg/kg), Iron (0.89 mg/kg), Manganese (0.07 mg/kg), Copper (0.28 mg/kg), Zinc (0.07 mg/kg), Cobalt (0.02 mg/kg) and Selenium (0.52 mg/kg). These results have shown that stem of Ficus capensis is a potential source of nutrients and bioactive compounds which are found useful in nutrition and therapy.

Effect of a giant meteorite impact on Paleoarchean surface environments and life

Large meteorite impacts must have strongly affected the habitability of the early Earth. Rocks of the Archean Eon record at least 16 major impact events, involving bolides larger than 10 km in diameter. These impacts probably had severe, albeit temporary, consequences for surface environments. However, their effect on early life is not well understood. Here, we analyze the sedimentology, petrography, and carbon isotope geochemistry of sedimentary rocks across the S2 impact event (37 to 58 km carbonaceous chondrite) forming part of the 3.26 Ga Fig Tree Group, South Africa, to evaluate its environmental effects and biological consequences. The impact initiated 1) a giant tsunami that mixed Fe2+-rich deep waters into the Fe2+-poor shallow waters and washed debris into coastal areas, 2) heating that caused partial evaporation of surface ocean waters and likely a short-term increase in weathering and erosion on land, and 3) injection of P from vaporization of the S2 bolide. Strata immediately above the S2 impact event contain abundant siderites, which are associated with organic matter and exhibit light and variable δ13Ccarb values. This is consistent with microbial iron cycling in the wake of the impact event. Thus, the S2 impact likely had regional, if not global, positive and negative effects on life. The tsunami, atmospheric heating, and darkness would likely have decimated phototrophic microbes in the shallow water column. However, the biosphere likely recovered rapidly, and, in the medium term, the increase in nutrients and iron likely facilitated microbial blooms, especially of iron-cycling microbes.

Unveiling symbiotic bacterial communities in insects feeding on the latex-rich plant Ficus microcarpa.

The diversity and health of insects that feed on plants are closely related to their mutualistic symbionts and host plants. These symbiotic partners significantly influence various metabolic activities in these insects. However, the symbiotic bacterial community of toxic plant feeders still needs further characterisation. This study aims to unravel bacterial communities associated with the different species of insect representing three insect orders: Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera, along with their predicted functional role, which exclusively feeds on latex-rich plant species Ficus microcarpa. By using 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing, the analysis was able to define the major alignment of the bacterial population, primarily comprising Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Actinobacteriota, and Acidobacteriota. Significant differences in symbiotic organisms between three insect groups were discovered by the study: hemipterans had Burkholderia and Buchnera, and lepidopterans had Acinetobacter. At the same time, Pseudomonas was detected in high abundance in both lepidopteran and thysanopteran insects. Furthermore, these symbionts exhibit consistent core functions, potentially explaining how different insects can consume the same host plant. The identified core functions of symbionts open avenues for innovative approaches in utilising these relationships to develop environment-friendly solutions for pest control, with broader implications for agriculture and environmental conservation.

Eco-friendly synthesis of pure lignin nanoparticle and silver-doped lignin nanoparticle using fig tree bark for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B dye and assessment of their anticancer and antibacterial performance

Lignin nanoparticles (lignin-NPs) have been successfully prepared from the bark of a fig tree by a hydrothermal method for the first time, next, synthesized lignin-NPs were doped with silver (Ag) metal. The Ag-doped lignin-NPs and pure lignin-NPs have been identified through UV–Vis, XRD, FT-IR, and FESEM/EDX techniques. XRD patterns of pure lignin-NPs and Ag-doped lignin-NPs have shown amorphous and crystalline structures respectively. The UV–Vis spectra of NPs presented strong absorption bands in 450, 228, and 289 nm. FESEM images of Ag-doped lignin-NPs and pure lignin-NPs exhibited spherical shapes via sizes of about 18.55 nm and 31.93 nm respectively. Also, the FTIR spectra revealed the same functional groups. Moreover, the photocatalytic performance of NPs for the decolorization of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye has been investigated under UVA light. As a result, Ag-doped lignin-NPs demonstrated a higher degradation percentage than pure lignin-NPs. The results of the MTT assay after 48 h indicate that pure lignin-NPs had little toxicity compared with Ag doped lignin-NPs on normal (L929) and cancer (Huh-7) cells. Also, according to the results of the agar diffusion test, Ag doped lignin-NPs had better antibacterial performance in comparison with pure lignin-NPs on Pseudomonas aeruginosa (POA1 and S7), and Enterococcus faecalis (clinical).

A critical review of antioxidant potential and pharmacological applications of important Ficus species

The Ficus genus is universally recognized for its medicinal properties. This article aims to comprehensively review the antioxidant potential and pharmacological properties of some key Ficus species within the genus, regarding their natural antioxidants and pharmacological properties. An extensive literature search was conducted across multiple databases using keywords such as Ficus species, antioxidant activity, and pharmacological applications. This review revealed notable differences in antioxidant capacity among the selected Ficus species. Comparative studies within the review indicated that factors such as geographical location, extraction method, and specific part of the plant used, significantly influenced the antioxidant activity and phytochemical content. Among these, F. benghalensis, F. carica, and F. krishnae exhibited the highest antioxidant capacities. Regarding overall pharmacological effectiveness, the species that out were F. religiosa, F. carica, and F. elastica. In sum, Ficus species emerge as a promising source of natural antioxidants with substantial pharmacological potential. Future research should focus on clinical trials to validate their medicinal uses, exploring the mechanism of actions, and potential applications in developing novel therapeutic agents.

Protected cultivation of fig tree (Ficus carica L.): possibilities and limits

Protected cultivation of fig tree (<i>Ficus carica</i> L.): possibilities and limits

Enhanced fig tree production through endomycorrhizal fungi inoculation: A nursery study on tree cuttings derived from the Ifrane Region, Morocco

The mycorrhizal association represents a crucial symbiotic bond necessary for the vitality of the majority of plants. This report aims to investigate the impact of endomycorrhizal fungi on the production of fig trees from cuttings. The research took place in a nursery environment by inoculating fig cuttings sourced from three sites in Morocco with a composite inoculum of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). The mean root and vegetative masses of the inoculated plants after 140 days were 33.1 g and 35 g compared with 1.8 g and 6.4 g in the control. The mean shoot length and number of leaves developed from treated cutting were 98.5 cm and 17, respectively 29 cm and 4 leaves in control. Thus, the newly formed roots showed a well-established mycorrhizal colonization and contained different structures characteristic of arbuscular endomycorrhizae: arbuscules, vesicles, endophytes, hyphae and spores. The frequency and intensity of root mycorrhization were approximately 80% and 15.5%, respectively. The contents of arbuscules and vesicles were 2.5% and 5.5%. The study of formed spores showed a combination of 52 spores per 100 g of soil, belonging to 11 species and 3 genera: Glomus, Acaulospora and Rhizophagus with dominance of the genus Glomus (85%). Glomus macrocarpum and Glomus deserticola were the most abundant species, appearing at 30.77% and 19.23%, respectively. The results demonstrate a pronounced stimulating effect on both root formation and vegetative shoot development in the inoculated cuttings. Specifically, the early inoculation of fig cutting with the AMF inoculum significantly enhanced rhizogenesis end root system development. Consequently, the gradual establishment of mycorrhizal symbiosis at the root level of inoculated plants led to good development of the root mass and the vegetative mass. The inoculated plants showed good root and vegetative mass development due to the installation and the progressive development of mycorrhizal symbiosis at their roots.

Comparative assessment of phytoremediation potential of four Ficus spp. under Semi-arid environmental conditions.

Heavy metals have been recognized as a prominent hazard in today's world, causing pollution in the air environment. Woody tree species can play a significant role in the extraction and remediation of metal pollutants from the air, therefore promoting the air quality index. This study investigated the potential of four species of the Ficus genus (F. benjamina, F. microcarpa, F. religiosa, and F. virens) to remediate varying levels of heavy metal contamination in industrial, residential, and highway areas of Faisalabad City, Pakistan. For this purpose, six heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese) were assessed in young leaves (YL) as well as old leaves (OL) of subjected tree species at selected study sites. Eight fully expanded leaves were selected from each tree species: two from each cardinal direction from the shoot of the current year (young leaves, YL), as well as from the shoot of the previous year (old leaves, OL). The results showed that the same genus has different capabilities to accumulate different heavy metals, and the overall trend was in the following order: F. virens > F. religiosa > F. benjamina > F. microcarpa at all study sites. The heavy metal contents in both YL and OL of selected tree species decreased in the order of Manganese (Mn)> Zinc (Zn)> Copper (Cu) > Chromium (Cr) > Lead (Pb) > Cadmium (Cd) at all study sites. The metal accumulation index (MAI) values ranged between 2.14-5.42 for F. benjamina, 2.09-3.89 for F. microcarpa, 3.61-7.01 for F. religiosa and 4.77-6.48 for F. virens across all study sites. Among the studied tree species, it has been determined that F. virens and F. religiosa are well-suited for urban areas with significant heavy metal contamination and can be strategically planted in barrier areas to effectively combat atmospheric pollution.

Coordination between water relations strategy and carbon investment in leaf and stem in six fruit tree species.

The water relation strategy is a key issue in climate change. Given the difficulty of determining water relations strategy, there is a need for simple traits with a solid theoretical basis to estimate it. Traits associated with resource allocation patterns along a 'fast-slow' plant economics spectrum are particularly compelling, reflecting trade-offs between growth rate and carbon allocation. Avocado (Persea americana ), fig tree (Ficus carica ), mandarin (Citrus reticulata ), olive (Olea europaea ), pomegranate (Punica granatum ), and grapevine (Vitis vinifera ) were characterised in terms of iso-anisohydric strategy through stomatal behaviour, water potential at the turgor loss point (TLP), and hydroscape area. Additionally, the association of these metrics with leaf mass per area (LMA) and wood density (WDen) was explored. We observed high coordination between LMA and WDen, and both traits were related to metrics of water relation strategy. More anisohydric species tended to invest more carbon per unit leaf area or unit stem volume, which has implications for hydraulic efficiency and water stress tolerance. WDen and TLP were the most powerful traits in estimating the water relation strategy for six fruit species. These traits are easy to measure, time-cost efficient, and appear central to coordinating multiple traits and behaviours along the water relations strategies.

New insights into the identification of biochemical traits linked to rooting percentage in fig (Ficus carica L.) cuttings

BACKGROUND: The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree known for its tasty and nutritious fruits, is typically propagated by cutting. While previous studies have focused on the effects of different treatments and environmental conditions on fig cutting propagation, little attention has been paid to the specific role and association of biochemical properties in leaves, stem bark and fruit on the rooting process. OBJECTIVE: This research explores the complex relationship between 40 biochemical traits and the rooting ability of fig cuttings. To achieve this objective, various machine learning techniques were employed, such as a random forest model, feature importance analysis, linear regression, and principal component analysis (PCA). RESULTS: The random forest model showed significant predictive ability with a classification accuracy of 100%, supported by a high kappa statistic. Feature importance analysis identified a* (a colorimetric parameter in fruit), fruit trans-ferulic acid and leaf total flavonoids as the most influential traits in determining the rooting ability of cuttings. The robustness of these findings is supported by the high R-squared value (0.9002) and low error metrics (MAE 0.7554 and MSE 0.6980) of the linear regression model built on these important traits. In parallel, PCA indicated that a*, leaf total flavonoids and fruit trans-ferulic acid were the dominant traits in samples with lower rooting percentage. CONCLUSIONS: These identified biomarkers can be effectively used by fig breeders and growers to select and introduce fig cultivars with improved rooting ability.

Phenotypic, Metabolic and Genetic Adaptations of the Ficus Species to Abiotic Stress Response: A Comprehensive Review.

The Ficus genus, having radiated from the tropics and subtropics to the temperate zone worldwide, is the largest genus among woody plants, comprising over 800 species. Evolution of the Ficus species results in genetic diversity, global radiation and geographical differentiations, suggesting adaption to diverse environments and coping with stresses. Apart from familiar physiological changes, such as stomatal closure and alteration in plant hormone levels, the Ficus species exhibit a unique mechanism in response to abiotic stress, such as regulation of leaf temperature and retention of drought memory. The stress-resistance genes harbored by Ficus result in effective responses to abiotic stress. Understanding the stress-resistance mechanisms in Ficus provides insights into the genetic breeding toward stress-tolerant crop cultivars. Following upon these issues, we comprehensively reviewed recent progress concerning the Ficus genes and relevant mechanisms that play important roles in the abiotic stress responses. These highlight prospectively important application potentials of the stress-resistance genes in Ficus.

Commentary on Ross Gay's "To the Fig Tree on 9th and Christian".

Commentary on Ross Gay's "To the Fig Tree on 9th and Christian".

New genus and two new species of Cecidomyiidi (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) inhabiting the fig wall of Ficus subpisocarpa and Ficus caulocarpa (Moraceae) in Japan and Taiwan

AbstractThere are approximately 850 species of Ficus (Moraceae). However, few species of gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) inhabiting syconia and leaves of fig trees are known. In field surveys, gall midges were found in syconia of Ficus caulocarpa and Ficus subpisocarpa. Here, we examined adults, pupae and larvae of the gall midge species, describe the morphology, and provide information on distribution, behavior and genetic data. A new genus, Ficidiplosis Yukawa and Arimoto, gen. nov., is established in the supertribe Cecidomyiidi for two new species, Ficidiplosis subpisocarpae Yukawa and Arimoto, sp. nov. and Ficidiplosis caulocarpae Yukawa and Arimoto, sp. nov., which emerged from syconia of Ficus subpisocarpa and Ficus caulocarpa, respectively, in Japan and Taiwan. The larvae of Ficidiplosis species feed on the parenchyma of the fig wall and pupate there without making galls. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI)‐based neighbor‐joining tree using samples from Japan and Taiwan supported the existence of two separate species.

From Ficus recemosa Leaf Galls to Therapeutic Silver Nanoparticles: Antibacterial and Anticancer Applications.

The synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using environmentally friendly methods has become increasingly important due to its sustainability and cost-effectiveness. This study investigates the green synthesis of AgNPs using gall extracts from the plant Ficus recemosa, known for its high phytochemical content. The formation of AgNPs was verified through multiple analytical techniques, including UV-Vis spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zeta potential analysis, and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The UV-Vis spectroscopy results displayed a distinct surface plasmon resonance peak indicative of AgNP formation. FTIR analysis revealed specific interactions between silver ions and phytochemicals in the gall extract, while TEM images confirmed the nanoscale morphology and size of the synthesized particles. Zeta potential and DLS analyses provided insights into the stability and size distribution of the AgNPs, demonstrating good colloidal stability. Biological properties of the AgNPs were assessed through various assays. Antimicrobial activity was tested using the disc diffusion method against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, showing significant inhibitory effects. The anticancer potential was evaluated using the trypan blue exclusion assay on Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) cells, revealing considerable cytotoxicity. Additionally, antimitotic activity was studied in the dividing root cells of Allium cepa, where the AgNPs significantly inhibited cell division. This research highlights the effective use of F. recemosa gall extracts for the green synthesis of AgNPs, presenting an eco-friendly approach to producing nanoparticles with strong antimicrobial, anticancer, and antimitotic properties. The promising results suggest potential applications of these biogenic AgNPs in medical and agricultural sectors, paving the way for further exploration and utilization.

Contrasting Phenological Patterns and Reproductive Strategies in Closely Related Monoecious Fig Tree Species.

Understanding the ecological and evolutionary aspects of mutualistic interactions is essential for predicting species responses to environmental changes. This study aimed to investigate the phenological patterns and reproductive strategies in two closely related fig tree species, Ficus citrifolia and Ficus eximia. We monitored 99 F. citrifolia and 21 F. eximia trees weekly from January 2006 to April 2011 in an area close to the southern edge of the tropical region in Brazil. Our results revealed contrasting phenological patterns between the two species, with F. citrifolia displaying an annual flowering pattern (1.4 episodes per tree per year) and F. eximia a supra-annual pattern (0.5 episodes per tree per year). We also found significant differences in reproductive strategies, with F. eximia producing more pistillate flowers and, consequently, more seeds and pollinating wasps per fig than F. citrifolia, likely as an adaptation to overcome limitations of low population density by maximizing the gene flow. As the shorter-lived organism, the fig wasp was found to influence critical processes associated with the success and stability of mutualism, such as fig development and ripening. Our findings emphasize the importance of understanding the intricate interactions between mutualistic partners and their adaptive responses to environmental conditions in shaping fig tree populations' reproductive strategies and genetic structure.

Genome-wide association studies using chromosome-scale genomes of male and female lines redefines two sex-linked loci in linkage disequilibrium in Ficus carica L.

Despite its significance in breeding and agricultural practices, the genetic mechanisms that determine sex in the fig (Ficus carica) are not clearly understood, highlighting the need for comprehensive genomic and genetic research to clarify these complex processes. With the aim to accurately identifying the genetic loci involved in sex-related traits of the fig, two chromosome-scale genome sequences for ‘Horaishi’ (a female line) and ‘Caprifig 6085′ (a male line) were determined, and a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was subsequently conducted using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) obtained from whole genome sequencing across genetically diverse lines and a biparental mapping population derived from a cross between the two lines. As a result, two major GWAS signals were detected. Of these, only the SNPs on FcRAN1 were found to perfectly associate with the sex phenotype, which was suggested as a sex determinant in our previous study. On the other hand, the SNP pattern of FcAG did not perfectly match the sex phenotype, but FcAG was located near and showed another strong GWAS signal, and in contrast, the polymorphisms in the deletion of FcAG did not contradict the sex phenotype or the SNP pattern of FcRAN1. These results suggest that the candidate genes for the sex-linked traits in figs are narrowed down to both FcRAN1 and FcAG, indicating that they are not limited to one or the other. Furthermore, they suggest some potential scenarios, including the possibility that the sex-linked traits are controlled either complementarily or collaboratively by these two genes, which are in linkage disequilibrium. In addition, we confirmed that a non-recombining sex-linked region exists between these two gene loci. The genome information and the finding for sex-related traits would be helpful to understand sex determination mechanisms in Ficus plants as well as the fig breeding programs.

Functions, accumulation, and biosynthesis of important secondary metabolites in the fig tree (Ficus carica).

Ficus carica is an economically important horticultural plant. Due to its abundant secondary metabolites, F. carica has gained interest for its applications in medicine and as a nutritional supplement. Both external and internal factors affect the accumulation of secondary metabolites in F. carica. The assembly of the F. carica genome has facilitated functional analysis of key genes and transcription factors associated with the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, particularly anthocyanin. In this review, we summarize the various types and functions of secondary metabolites, with a particular focus on flavonoids, coumarins, and terpenes. We also explore the factors influencing their biosynthesis and accumulation, including varieties, tissue, environmental factors (e.g., light), stresses (e.g., high temperature, low temperature, drought, nutrient deficiencies, salinity), hormonal treatments, and developmental factors. Furthermore, we discuss the involvement of structural genes and transcription factors in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, specifically anthocyanin and furanocoumarins, knowledge of which will promote the breeding and genetic engineering of novel F. carica varieties.

Distribution and genetic diversity analysis of fig mosaic virus in Kermanshah Province, Iran

AbstractFig mosaic disease (FMD) poses a significant threat to fig (Ficus carica) trees globally. Fig mosaic virus (Emaravirus fici, Family Fimoviridae) is one of the main causes involved in FMD. E. fici has been reported in many countries, including Iran. This research investigated the genetic diversity and distribution of this virus in Kermanshah Province, the third fig‐producing region in Iran. In 2021 and 2022, 128 samples, mainly displaying FMD symptoms, were collected from fig trees across nine counties. Using DAS‐ELISA with polyclonal antibodies, 86 samples tested positive for fig mosaic virus. The 2‐year‐old healthy fig saplings grafted with scions from infected trees exhibited mosaic symptoms and tested positive for the virus in DAS‐ELISA. Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) by RdRp‐specific primers (E5‐s and E5‐a) also amplified a DNA fragment with the expected size of about 302 bp from the ELISA‐positive samples. Five of the 12 symptomless samples showed positive results in both DAS‐ELISA and RT‐PCR. This indicates that the absence of symptoms in propagation sources does not imply that they are virus‐free. Nucleotide sequences of RT‐PCR products confirmed the fig mosaic virus infection. BLAST analysis of 20 samples (GenBank accession numbers OQ552535 to OQ552554) revealed that 19 sequences show high nucleotide identity (93.4%–96.8%) with an isolate from Lorestan Province, Iran (GenBank accession number KT732024). Notably, isolate FM203 showed distinct genetic divergence (86.6%–90.2% nucleotide identity) and shared similarities with some other Iranian isolates, including those from Kermanshah and Mazandaran provinces. Phylogenetic analysis grouped most isolates with the Lorestan isolate, while FM203 was placed in a separate cluster. This study highlighted the widespread presence of fig mosaic virus in Kermanshah Province, emphasizing varying infection rates across different counties, with Dalahoo County (Rijab) showing the highest prevalence.

Studying of Pesticide Residual of the Insecticides Closer and Sivanto Used on Fig Trees

Studying of Pesticide Residual of the Insecticides Closer and Sivanto Used on Fig Trees

Specialist fig-consuming lepidopterans can inflict costs to plant reproductive success that are mitigated by ant bodyguards

Insect herbivores can inflict substantial costs on plant reproductive success. Seed herbivory impacts directly by reducing the number of seeds and therefore the dispersal and reproductive potential of the plant. Fig trees, Ficus, provide keystone resources for tropical forests. The pollinating fig wasps develop inside figs, so consumption of unripe figs results in trees not only losing seeds but also their pollen dispersers. Selection to defend figs should therefore be strong. Seed herbivory is understudied in tropical forests and most data has been collected from fallen fruits. Here we use canopy sampling to identify fig-consuming larvae in central Panama and quantify both their consequences for the fig trees’ reproductive success and the defensive value that ants provide against these larvae. Field surveys of 46 crops from nine fig species revealed that larvae could destroy up to 80% of figs on a tree. From seven Ficus species we barcoded (using COI) 51 individual fig consuming larvae (mainly Lepidoptera) that grouped into seven molecular operational taxonomic units. Lepidopteran larvae formed two feeding strategies, either stationary within a fig or tunneling between figs. Within the context of our study, stationary larvae were specialists whereas tunneling larvae were either specialists or generalists found on different Ficus species. Trees with ants had significantly fewer figs consumed by larvae (9% ± 17% (mean ± SD) for trees with azteca ants and 16% ± 24% for trees with other ants) than did trees without ants (51% ± 27%). Our results corroborate earlier findings that hosting ants can be an effective defensive mechanism for trees against seed herbivores or other antagonistic insects. Our study contributes to a wider body of research around the networks of insects associated with figs that highlights the importance of a multitrophic approach for understanding mutualism stability and persistence in the face of antagonism.