Ficus Research Articles

IMPROVING THE GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FIG TREES BY SPRAYING WITH MORINGA LEAVES EXTRACTS AND GARLIC CLOVES

This experiment was conducted in a private orchard at Aldaraman, Kirkuk Governorate on "Khalobaziani" local fig trees. This study aimed to investigate the effect of spraying with Moringa leaf extract (MLE) at (0, 2, and 4 ml.l-1) and Garlic cloves extract (GCE) at (0, 10, and 20 ml.l-1) on growth and productivity of fig trees. Results showed that trees sprayed with MLE 4 ml.l-1 led to a significant increase in the leaf area, total chlorophyll content, average leaf dry weight, minerals (NPK) content in leaves, average fruit weight and size, and average yield per tree, while significantly decreased fruit cracking percentage compared to control. Furthermore, significant increase in the leaf area, total chlorophyll content, average leaf dry weight, minerals (NPK) content in leaves, and average fruit weight and size in the trees sprayed with GCE 20 ml.l-1 compared to control. The interaction between MLE 4 ml.l-1 and GCE 20 ml.l-1 showed a significant increase in the leaf area, total chlorophyll content, average leaf dry weight, and minerals (NPK) content in leaves, also significantly decreased fruit cracking percentage compared to most of the other treatments.

Fungal Species Causing Canker and Wilt of Ficus carica and Evidence of Their Association by Bark Beetles in Italy.

Field surveys conducted during 2021 and 2022 in Western Sicily, Italy, revealed the presence of common fig trees severely affected by trunk and crown root canker and bark cracking. Moreover, in conjunction with the symptomatic tissues, the same surveyed plants showed the presence of bark beetle holes and internal wood galleries. The predominant beetle Criphalus dilutus was previously reported attacking figs in Sicily. Phylogenetic analyses based on multilocus DNA data showed the presence of different fungal taxa associated with disease symptoms, including Botryosphaeria dothidea, Ceratocystis ficicola, Diaporthe foeniculina, Neocosmospora bostrycoides, N. perseae, and Neofusicoccum luteum. Pathogenicity tests conducted on potted fig plants showed that all the species were pathogenic to fig, with C. ficicola and Neocosmospora spp. as the most aggressive fungal species. Moreover, isolations conducted from the bodies of emerging adult insects recovered from disease samples confirmed the presence of C. ficicola and Neocosmospora spp., suggesting the potential involvement of C. dilutus in their dissemination.

Structure-based discovery of F. religiosa phytochemicals as potential inhibitors against Monkeypox (mpox) viral protein

Outbreaks of Monkeypox (mpox) in over 100 non-endemic countries in 2022 represented a serious global health concern. Once a neglected disease, mpox has become a global public health issue. A42R profilin-like protein from mpox (PDB ID: 4QWO) represents a potential new lead for drug development and may interact with various synthetic and natural compounds. In this report, the interaction of A42R profilin-like protein with six phytochemicals found in the medicinal plant Ficus religiosa (abundant in India) was examined. Based on the predicted and compared protein–ligand binding energies, biological properties, IC50 values and toxicity, two compounds, kaempferol (C-1) and piperine (C-4), were selected. ADMET characteristics and quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) of these two compounds were determined, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed. In silico examination of the kaempferol (C-1) and piperine (C-4) interactions with A42R profilin-like protein gave best-pose ligand-binding energies of –6.98 and –5.57 kcal/mol, respectively. The predicted IC50 of C-1 was 7.63 μM and 82 μM for C-4. Toxicity data indicated that kaempferol and piperine are non-mutagenic, and the QSAR data revealed that piperlongumine (5.92) and piperine (5.25) had higher log P values than the other compounds examined. MD simulations of A42R profilin-like protein in complex with C-1 and C-4 were performed to examine the stability of the ligand–protein interactions. As/C and C-4 showed the highest affinity and activities, they may be suitable lead candidates for developing mpox therapeutic drugs. This study should facilitate discovering and synthesizing innovative therapeutics to address other infectious diseases.

Bioactive enhancement of PVA films through CNC reinforcement and Ficus auriculata fruit extract: A novel synthesis for sustainable applications

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have received immense interest lately as a potential nanomaterial because of their excellent mechanical and biological properties. This investigation aims to formulate a composite coating made of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), CNCs, and a methanolic extract from the dried leaves and fruit of the fig tree (Ficus auriculata) (FAE). A sequential procedure to get CNCs included alkaline and acid hydrolysis, sonication, and suitable methods for purification. Analytical techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the CNC-loaded films. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of composites revealed superior thermal stability of the CNC-reinforced films versus control, evident from higher degradation temperatures, indicating desirable environmental resistance of proposed coatings for wood surfaces. The termite control was made more effective through synergistic use of a combination of CNCs, PVA, and FAE with proven insecticidal properties. The composite material was examined for its anti-termite resistance and termite mortality rate, and demonstrated that when used together, CNCs, PVA, and FAE were collectively and synergistically more effective at keeping termites away. The findings of this study demonstrate that the evolved composite could be used to develop anti-termite products that are environmentally benign and respond well. Synthesized composites also demonstrated significant antibacterial activity. Among all films, a combination of 0.7 % extract in PVA displayed excellent results with 26 and 28 mm diameter for growth inhibition zone for Gram-positive bacteria whereas 26 mm for both negative bacterial strains. The findings suggest a potential use of this composite as a sustainable, environmentally resistant, and eco-friendly alternative for termite/bacterial control in various building materials and wood preservation applications.

Pheophorbide-a, a chlorophyll derivative, inhibits myometrial contractility ex vivo via blockade of extracellular and intracellular Ca2+−entry

BackgroundPreterm delivery is associated with neonatal complications such as neurological impairment and necrotising enterocolitis. Thus, suppression of early myometrial contractility in pre-term labor (PTL) delays delivery and reduces maternal adverse outcomes associated with PTL. However, most tocolytics exert varied efficacies and untoward outcomes such as maternal cardiovascular and respiratory effects creating a need for novel efficacious and safe tocolytics. We previously reported that chlorophyll derivatives including Pheophorbide-a (PBa) isolated from the leaves of the plant Ficus exasperata, effectively inhibited non-pregnant mouse myometrial contractility ex vivo. Therefore, the current study explores the mechanisms involved in PBa-induced myometrial contractility inhibition in both non-pregnant and pregnant mouse uterus. MethodWe carried out contractility studies by inducing isometric tension on isolated myometrial strips of mice following ex vivo exposure to PBa. The uterine strips were mounted in organ baths containing oxygenated physiological saline maintained at pH 7.4 and 36.8 ± 0.2 °C. ResultsPBa (0.02–206.19 µM) produced concentration-dependent decreases in the amplitude and frequency of pregnant and non-pregnant uterine contractions. In addition, PBa (87.74 μM) significantly inhibited the amplitude (P = 0.0026) and frequency (P = 0.0178) of OT-induced uterine contractility in Ca2+−free solution and in the presence of high KCl (80 mM) (P = 0.005). Furthermore, our study showed that the uterine relaxant effect of PBa occurred through the blockade of l-type voltage-gated Ca2+channels (VGCCs) and through inhibition of Ca2+ mobilization from intracellular stores which are common downstream pathways specific to tocolytics and relevant for uterine relaxation. ConclusionThese findings reveal that PBa effectively attenuates uterine contractions via interaction with Ca2+−entry and shows potential as a promising candidate as a tocolytic therapy for PTL. Further investigations on PBa are encouraged to elucidate molecular and cellular mechanisms of PBa uterine relaxation activity including assessment of efficacy and off-target effects.

Optimizing Inoculation Techniques for Enhanced Rust Disease Pressure in Fig Trees: Insights on Cerotelium fici Multiplication and Maintenance

Fig rust is one of the most prevalent diseases caused by Cerotelium fici is an obligate parasite and it has to be maintained only on its own host. The present study was taken into consideration to check the comparative effectiveness of various inoculation methods for inducing disease symptoms, maintaining and multiplying inoculums, and examining the slow rusting mechanism. For this, a polyhouse experiment using the Poona fig cultivar was conducted at the National Agricultural Research Project, Ganeshkhind, Pune. Ninety-days-old three fig layers, each with four to five healthy leaves, were inoculated in the evening using six different inoculation methods. The suspension of urediospores used for inoculation was made with 5 X 108 spores ml-1 in sterile water. The result of the study revealed that, leaf dip, micro droplet and hand inoculation methods were found most effective for mass multiplication and maintenance of C. fici.

The obligate fig-pollinator family Agaonidae in Germany (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea)

All native and many cultivated fig plants are pollinated by representatives of the family Agaonidae (fig wasps), which are specialised, secondarily phytophagous relatives of parasitoid wasps that evolved an obligate mutualism with fig trees. So far, distribution of Agaonidae in Europe has been limited to southern, mostly Mediterranean areas, for example, in Greece, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, France, Spain and Portugal. Here, we report the first four records of the family for Germany, all in the form of the widespread species Blastophaga psenes (Linnaeus, 1758). New verified records are from three States in western and south-western Germany, Baden-Wuerttemberg (Radolfzell at Lake Constance and Sasbach am Kaiserstuhl near Freiburg), Saarland (Saarbrücken) and Northrhine-Westalia (Bochum) and all are based on citizen-scientist observations and collections. The new records are considerably more northern than previously recorded localities and, strikingly, geographically distant from these. All records can be attributed to the presence of large male caprifig trees (Ficus carica L. var. caprificus), whose three generations of fruits host the development stages of Blastophaga psenes. We generated DNA barcode data of specimens from three localities and added them to the national GBOL (German Barcode of Life) database and the international Barcode of Life database (BOLD). The somewhat surprising occurrence of the species/family in Germany might be attributable to increasing temperatures as a result of global warming, but this needs further investigation. Additionally, the presence of fig wasps, assuming it stabilises, could offer new opportunities for fig farming in Germany.

Changes in endangered hornbill populations over space and time and potential ecological impacts in peninsular Thailand

Hornbills are particularly important seed dispersers in tropical Asian forests, but most of the species in the region are declining. In addition, long-term data on the extent of the declines and how forest degradation impacts hornbills remain mostly unquantified. Here, we used multi-covariate distance sampling to estimate the densities of hornbills in 2021–2022 in Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary and Budo Su-Ngai Padi National Park protected areas in southern Thailand. These two sites are particularly useful for comparison due to differences in protection levels, with Bala being relatively less disturbed than Budo Mountain and because Bala was surveyed 20 years prior (2001–2002). Fig tree watches were also conducted in 2021–2022 to assess the potential impact of forest disturbance on hornbill visitation rates. Results indicated significant differences in hornbill densities between the two sites. The mean density of the Rhinoceros (Buceros rhinoceros) and Wreathed Hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus) was 3.2 and 5.1 times higher in Bala than in Budo, while the mean density of the Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) was 2.2 times higher in Budo than in Bala. The density of the Helmeted Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) was notably lower than other hornbill species. There were also significant changes over the past 20 years in large hornbill densities, with Great Hornbill and Wreathed Hornbill significantly increasing, while the Helmeted Hornbill declined more than 90 %. Also, the probability of hornbills visiting fruiting Ficus trees was higher in the less-disturbed Bala than the Budo Mountain, making hornbills more reliable visitors in the less-disturbed site. We demonstrate the applicability of the multi-covariate distance sampling approach to estimate densities of rare hornbills, the negative impacts of habitat degradation on hornbills and the ecological role they play as seed dispersers. Additional surveys are needed throughout tropical Asia to establish further sites for long-term monitoring, especially in the Sunda region, where the Helmeted Hornbill is under extreme threat.

First Evidence of Thalassochory in the Ficus Genus: Seed Dispersal Using the Kuroshio Oceanic Current.

Plants distributed between southern Taiwan and the north of the Philippines are spread among numerous small islands in an area crossed by the powerful Kuroshio current. Oceanic currents can be effective seed-dispersal agents for coastal plant species. Moreover, the Luzon Strait is an area prone to tropical cyclones. The aim of this study is to look at the dispersal capability of an endangered coastal plant species, the Mearns fig (Ficus pedunculosa var. mearnsii), using both experimental and population genetics methods. Southern Taiwan, the Philippines, and the islands between Luzon and Taiwan Island. This study combined two types of analysis, i.e., buoyancy experiments on syconia and double digest restriction-associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD), to analyze the population genetics of the Mearns fig. We first discovered that mature Mearns fig syconia could float in seawater. They have a mean float duration of 10 days to a maximum of 21 days. Germination rates varied significantly between Mearns fig seeds that had undergone different durations of flotation treatment. Population genetic analysis shows a high degree of inbreeding among various Mearns fig populations. Moreover, no isolation by distance was found between the populations and individuals. From our analysis of the genetic structure of the Mearns fig populations, we can clearly highlight the effect of the Kuroshio oceanic current on the seed dispersal of this fig tree. Comprehensive analysis has shown that Mearns fig seeds are still viable before the mature syconium sinks into the seawater, and so they could use the Kuroshio Current to float to the current population locations in Taiwan.

The Effect of Ficus semicordata Fig Quality on the Sex Ratio of Its Pollinating Wasp Ceratosolen gravelyi

The interaction between fig wasps and their host fig trees (Ficus spp.) is a striking example of an obligate pollination mutualism. Male and female fig wasps are confined within their natal patch instead of panmictic; under this circumstance, mating only occurs between individuals of the same patch. This is known as a local mate competition (LMC). It pays foundresses to invest mainly in daughters and to only produce enough sons to ensure that all female offspring can be fertilized, but in nature, pollinating fig wasps may face many problems with host quality, such as limitation of oviposition sites and the nutrition deficiency of the host fig. The sex ratio of wasps can determine the stability of fig–fig wasp mutualistic system and, thus, the stability of other species associated with it. In this study, we controlled the quality of host figs in three ways. The results showed that the host fig age can influence the sex ratio of pollinator offspring, while the foundress numbers and the presence of pollen have no significant effect on it. A compelling explanation for this result is that the sex-dependent mortality occurs. This is a novel finding of how host quality influences the interaction of fig and fig wasps, which can also help us understand the evolution and stability mechanism of this symbiotic system.

Susceptibility and Resilience, a Fig Tree and a Scream

Analyzing two key figures in Elif Shafak’s novel The Island of Missing Trees—a schoolgirl’s scream and a narrating fig tree—this essay analyzes the intersection between susceptibility and resilience, particularly as these terms are developed in psychology, trauma studies, and ecology. I argue that the novel’s resonant scream critiques the discourse of psychological resilience on multiple counts: its inadequacy as a response to complex trauma, its focus on autonomous individuals, its assumption that responsibility for resilience rests on victims rather than perpetrators of harm, its construction of a “resistance imperative” and its disavowal of the inequalities in access to resilience-building resources. By contrast, the novel’s fig tree, I contend, exemplifies an ecological model of resilience rooted in a recognition of the interdependence of the multiple and diverse organisms that comprise an ecosystem, and of susceptibility as an advantageous suite of capacities that are crucial to resilience. These contrasting conceptions of resilience lead me to advocate for a politics of susceptibility, an eco-psychosocial politics based on the recognition that individuals cannot become resilient on their own, through their own volition, intention, or “self-efficacy”, and that focuses instead on building systemic and sustainable forms of resilience inclusive of the diverse subjects that comprise a community, society or ecosystem; that, rather than fetishizing independence, liberty and rights, fortifies interdependence and reinforces mutual responsibilities; and that rather than exploiting susceptibility as a weakness, nurtures it as the soul of resilience itself.

Assessing the Impact of Genotype-Specific Caprifig Fruit Storage on the Pollination Efficacy and Fruit Quality of “Bursa Siyahı” Cultivar: A Multivariate Analysis Approach

Fig types such as “Smyrna” and “San Pedro” require pollination (called caprification in fig cultivation) to produce a commercial crop, based on the crop and pollination characteristics of figs. Caprification is the process of hanging caprifig (male fig) fruits on female fig trees to ensure the transfer of pollen from the female fig to the caprifig by a wasp (Blastophaga psenes) that lives within the caprifig. It is necessary to extend the caprification period by using caprifig genotypes that ripen at different times, as female fig fruits ripen gradually. However, as caprifigs may not be continuously available for pollinating female figs, storing suitable caprifigs is necessary. The aim of this study was to assess changes in Blastophaga psenes, the duration of Blastophaga’s exit, and the viability of pollen from caprifigs of different genotypes (16 08 05, 16 08 09, 16 08 10, 16 09 10, and 16 ZF 08) stored for caprification. These stored caprifig genotypes were subsequently used for pollination three times at 8-day intervals, after which their impact on the set and quality of the edible fig fruits was evaluated. According to the average data, at the end of storage, the least B.psenes loss was obtained from the 16 08 05 (61.03%) genotype, and the highest was obtained from the 16 09 10 (67.00%) genotype. Pollen germination tended to increase with the storage of caprifig fruits, but this increase was not linear. After storage, the 16 08 09 and 16 09 10 genotypes exhibited greater pollen germination. The highest fruit set and quality were obtained when the 16 08 09 and 16 09 10 genotypes were used as pollen sources. Furthermore, since the 16 08 10 genotype is the latest ripening caprifig genotype, it has been determined that it can pollinate late-ripening “Bursa Siyahı” fruits. Principal component and path analysis demonstrated that pollen viability and germination rate were crucial in selecting caprifig genotypes for fruit set and quality.

Who holds the reins? Context-dependent resource allocation in the mutualism between fig trees and their fig wasp pollinators.

Mutualisms are consumer-resource interactions, in which goods and services are exchanged. Biological market theory states that exchanges should be regulated by both partners. However, most studies on mutualisms are one-sided, focusing on the control exercised by host organisms on their symbionts. In the brood-site pollination mutualism between fig trees and their symbiont wasp pollinators, galled flowers are development sites for pollinator larvae and are exchanged for pollination services. We determined if pollinator galls influenced resource allocation to fig inflorescences called syconia and considered feedbacks from the host tree. We experimentally produced syconia containing only seeds (S), only pollinator galls (G) or seeds and galls (SG) with varying number of introduced female pollinator wasps, i.e., foundress wasps. Biomass allocation to syconia was affected by foundress numbers and treatment groups; SG treatments received highest biomass allocation at low foundress numbers, and both G and SG treatments at high foundress numbers. Seeds are important determinants of allocation at low foundress numbers; galls are likely more influential at high foundress numbers. Most allocation in the G and SG treatment was to the syconium wall, likely as protection from parasitoids and temperature/humidity fluctuations. Dry mass of individual seeds and wasps (except at low foundress numbers) was unchanged between treatment groups, indicating seeds and wasps regulate resource flow into them, with lower flow into galls containing the smaller males compared to females commensurate with sexual dimorphism. We demonstrate the importance of considering the direct role of symbionts in accessing resources and controlling exchanges within mutualisms.

Ability of fig tree (<i>Ficus carica</i> L.) accessions to thrive under limited and unlimited soil water conditions

The nutritive value of <i>Ficus carica</i> L. and the health-promoting capacity of figs have recently gained scientific attention. Its adaptation capacity to climatic variability makes this crop an important production alternative in regions with limited water resources. The aims of this work were i) to identify a possible adaptive response to mitigate the negative effects of drought and enhance the ability of plants of six <i>Ficus carica</i> genotypes and ii) to identify outstanding fig tree accessions under study to survive once they were subjected to extreme drought. The pot experiment considered two soil water conditions: water deficit and water holding capacity in vase experimental conditions. We measured relative water content, leaf gas exchange, water efficiency variables, and solute content as response variables. The data were analyzed by a principal component analysis, Pearson correlation coefficients, and regression analyses. The results suggest a possible adaptive response to mitigate the negative effects of drought; the ability of plants of the six genotypes under study to survive under water deficit conditions was evidenced through a significant negative correlation between Proline (Pro) and relative water content (RWC). In this context, Guadalupe Victoria and Ceballos are outstanding accessions.

Antioxidant Activity and Effectiveness of Fig Extract in Counteracting Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Oxidative Damage in Rats.

Figs are the edible fruits of the fig tree, Ficus carica L., that have been used for centuries for human consumption and in traditional medicine, to treat skin problems, inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders. Our previous study investigated the presence of phenolic compounds in aqueous extracts of two Algerian popular fig varieties, azendjar (Az) and taamriouth (Ta), as well as their in vitro antioxidant activity. In this study, we assessed hydroethanolic extracts of these fig varieties. The total phenolic content was measured, along with the phenolic profile. Rutin was determined to be the dominant phenolic compound, followed by vanillic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, quercetin, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, rosmarinic acid (in Az only), and cinnamic acid. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated both in vitro (DPPH and FRAP assays) and in vivo, in rats intoxicated with carbon tetrachloride. In all assays, the fig extract-especially the dark-peeled fig variety azendjar-showed antioxidant potency. The administration of fig extract resulted in a reduction in liver damage, expressed by both different biochemical markers and histopathological study (less degraded liver architecture, reduced fibrosis, and only mild inflammation). A dose-dependent therapeutic effect was observed. The extract from the dark-peeled fig variety, Az, was characterized by a higher phenolic content and a stronger antioxidant activity than the extract from the light-peeled variety-Ta. Our study justifies the use of figs in traditional healing and shows the potential of using fig extracts in natural medicines and functional foods.

Sickness and the Power of Healing Prayer in 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isaiah 38:1–22

2 Kings 20:1–11; Isaiah 38:1–22 and 2 Chronicles 32:24–26 discuss Hezekiah’s sickness and the power of healing prayer. They are called Hezekiah-Isaiah narratives since they deal not only with (a) the threats and salvation of Jerusalem from Assyria, (b) the disease and the miraculous recovery or healing (ḥāyâ/rāքā’) of Hezekiah and description of the representatives from Babylon, but share a common narrative pattern in which Hezekiah is healed with a poultice/lump of fig tree (dəbelet təʾnim), having received advise and healing support from God’s messenger, Isaiah. Past scholars have approached this text differently, searching for its dating, literary growths, differences, originality with the desire to reveal the history of the various traditional components and relationship among parallel texts, as well the prophetic and kingly images of Isaiah and Hezekiah. Built on this past scholarship and African cultural perspectives and experiences, this work contextually, historically and theologically study, develop and analyze the story of Hezekiah’s sickness and healing.

The Trees Speak for Themselves

Elif Shafak's 2021 novel The Island of Missing Trees describes fictional events that occur on the real island of Cyprus during the war between the Greek and the Turkish inhabitants of the island. This story is told from multiple points of view at various points in time in both Cyprus and London, where the characters move to and live following the events of the war and their families’ disagreements with their relationship. What is unique about Shafak's storytelling is her use of a fig tree as a primary narrator of events. While the use of non-human narrators is not a new strategy, most of these occurrences involve animal speakers rather than plants or objects. In delivering a fiction narrative from the point of view of a fig tree, Elif Shafak's The Island of Missing Trees introduces readers to multispecies encounters by providing an example of how arboreal figures communicate and experience history alongside humans in an anthropocentric world, and further encourages prosocial behavior between human and non-human species. Based on Shafak's novel, theories of attentiveness and slow-violence, and studies on the effect of non-human narrators on readers, including these "non-living" narrators in widely accessible pieces of fiction not only informs audiences of the multispecies encounters that occur in everyday life, but also opens more avenues of multispecies conservation.

Single and basal crop coefficients for estimation of water requirements of subtropical and tropical orchards and plantations with consideration of fraction of ground cover, height, and training system

AbstractThis paper provides an overview of the research carried out over the last 25 years on the FAO56 single and basal crop coefficients of subtropical and tropical orchards and plantations of cactus pear, dragon fruit, fig, jujube, passion fruit, pomegranate, cape gooseberry, cherimoya, guava, longan, lychee, mango, papaya, acerola, carambola, cashew, cacao, coffee, jaboticaba, jatropha, macadamia, açai palm, coconut, date palm, guayule, oil palm, peach palm, ramie and rubber tree. The main objective of this review is to update standard single crop coefficients (Kc) and basal crop coefficients (Kcb) and complete the Kc and Kcb values tabulated in FAO56. Kc is the ratio between the non-stressed crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the grass reference evapotranspiration (ETo), and Kcb is the ratio between the crop transpiration (Tc) and the ETo. When selecting and analysing the literature, only studies that used the FAO Penman–Monteith equation, or another equation well related to the former to compute ETo were considered, while ETc or Tc were obtained from accurate field measurements on crops under pristine (non-stress cropping conditions) or eustress (“good stress”) conditions. Articles meeting these conditions were selected to provide data for updating Kc and Kcb under standard conditions. The related description of orchards and plantations refers to crop cultivar and rootstock, irrigation systems and scheduling, planting spacing, fraction of ground cover (fc) by the crops, crop height (h), crop age and training systems, as Kc and Kcb values depend on these characteristics. To define the standard Kc and Kcb values of the selected crops, the values collected in the literature were compared with previously tabulated standard Kc and Kcb values. The updated tabulated values are transferable to other locations and climates and can be used to calculate and model crop water requirements, primarily for irrigation planning and scheduling, and thereby supporting of improved water use and savings, which is the overall aim of the current review.

Pollination of the Mediterranean Fig Tree, Ficus Carica L.: Caprification Practices and Social Networks of Exchange of Caprifigs among Jbala Farmers in Northern Morocco

Pollination of the Mediterranean Fig Tree, Ficus Carica L.: Caprification Practices and Social Networks of Exchange of Caprifigs among Jbala Farmers in Northern Morocco

Development of PCR-based assays for the detection of the evident and latent infection with Stilbocrea banihashemiana, the causal agent of fruit tree cankers

The fig Bionectria canker, caused by Stilbocrea banihashemiana, is rapidly spreading in fruit trees, posing a significant threat to the horticultural industry. Early and specific detection of this pathogen is crucial for effective management. We developed a PCR-based assay using species-specific primers designed by exploiting sequence differences in the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) gene for early, rapid, and reliable diagnostics of this pathogen. The primers successfully amplified the target pathogen and did not react with other non-target fig canker-causing agents in direct and nested PCR. The designated primer pair, TEF-Sb3, with a 577 bp amplicon, demonstrated its efficacy by successfully detecting the pathogen with the lowest detectable concentration of 1 × 10−15 and 1 × 10−17 g.L−1 in direct and nested PCR, respectively. Furthermore, the selected primer pair had high performance in detecting the target pathogen in naturally infected samples with evident canker symptoms in nested PCR. Moreover, our molecular tool has effectively identified latent infection of S. banihashemiana in asymptomatic samples from fig and walnut trees from three different regions of Fars Province. This is a notable advancement, as traditional culture-based methods have failed to detect these infections. Our results suggested that the designed species-specific PCR assays were sufficiently sensitive, specific, and reliable for identifying S. banihashemiana from pure cultures and detecting the pathogen in symptomatic and asymptomatic trees. This assay can be a rapid and cost-effective tool for monitoring and managing Bionectria canker caused by S. banihashemiana in natural and potential host trees.