Fiber Saturation Research Articles

Useful near infrared spectroscopy model calibrations on solid wood samples of Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir.) for physical, mechanical and colour properties

Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir.) (local name: Toti, Tem) is a species endemic to the Guinea-Sudan and Sudan-Sahel zones. It is over-exploited for its wood, which is sold in international trade to China and Indian markets. The selection of high performance wood based on wood properties and their vegetative reproduction represents the best option for the establishment of plantations with the aim of promoting the restoration of degraded natural resources. However, measurements of these characters are lengthy, time consuming and destructive, and difficult to perform in Togo because of the lack of equipment. An alternative to those methods is near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. The aim of this study was to assess the efficiency and feasibility of near infrared spectroscopy for predicting the physical and mechanical properties and the colour parameters of P. erinaceus wood from Burkina Faso, Niger and Togo. The properties were determined by conventional method and correlated with near infrared spectra using partial least square regression. The partial least square regression models were tested by cross-validation and by external validation. The results of this study showed the possible use of near infrared spectroscopy to estimate the physical and mechanical properties and the colour parameters of P. erinaceus wood. In fact, when validating prediction models for radial and tangential shrinkage, the fibre saturation point (FSP) showed R2 values of 0.70, 0.71, and 0.92, respectively, with ratio performance deviation values of 1.84, 1.87 and 3.57. For the colour parameters L*, a* and b*, the R2 values were 0.83, 0.74 and 0.67, respectively, with ratio performance deviation values of 2.40, 2 and 1.70. The results showed that the basic density and fibre saturation point models were classed as good to very good, respectively. Near infrared spectroscopy can therefore be used to predict efficiently the properties of P. erinaceus wood for a large number of samples, enabling the incorporation of those traits in breeding criteria.

Synergistic effects of enzymatic decomposition and mechanical stress in wood degradation

Wood mechanical properties deteriorate due to formation of cracks caused by mechanical loading and due to the loss of structural polymers as a result of enzymatic activity. How these processes contribute to wood degradation and whether the interaction between mechanics and enzymes accelerate wood degradation was studied. Lignocellulolytic enzymes and dynamic mechanical loading, either alone, in combination or successively were applied to native and hydrothermally modified Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) veneers. Tensile testing was employed to evaluate the changes in mechanical properties of the specimens. Fibre saturation point and hydroxyl group accessibility before and after hydrothermal modification and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis were assessed by differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic vapour sorption techniques. The study revealed that simultaneous mechanical and enzymatic treatments lead to a significant reduction in Scots pine tensile strength while successive application of the two treatments did not reduce wood tensile strength to the same extent. The finding points towards the importance of synergy between abiotic and biotic factors in wood deterioration. Further, hydrothermal modification, unlike enzymatic hydrolysis, significantly affected wood hygroscopicity, but did not influence how the wood reacted to the mechanical and enzymatic treatments.

Hourly fine fuel moisture model for Pinus halepensis (Mill.) litter

Pinus halepensis (Mill.) is the most widely distributed and abundant Mediterranean pine, as well as one of the species most affected by wildfires in Europe. The objective of this study was to develop and test an operationally useful fine fuel moisture prediction model for P. halepensis needle litter below the fibre saturation point, where flammability increases rapidly with decreasing moisture content. The predictive ability of the hourly Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC) was also evaluated. Even though the hourly FFMC model is designed for pine litter, it consistently over-predicted moisture content of P. halepensis needle litter and could not track the rapid moisture change during the day. Experimental measurements of equilibrium moisture content and response time of dead P. halepensis needles were used to modify the hourly FFMC model. The modified model performed better than the hourly FFMC model on all evaluation parameters, with a mean absolute error of 1% moisture content. Our results suggest that fine fuel moisture prediction models should be species-specific in order to achieve the accuracy needed for precise prediction of fire behaviour.

Moisture-related adjustment factor to obtain a reference ultrasonic velocity in structural lumber of plantation hardwood

ABSTRACTWave propagation techniques based on ultrasound for timber grading are influenced by the moisture content (MC) of wood. The ultrasound velocities at an equilibrium MC (V12) and above saturation point (Vsat) were used to calculate moisture-related adjustment factors (kH). Tests were conducted using plantation hardwoods (Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus pellita) grown in Brazil. Below the fiber saturation point (FSP), kH values were between 0.66% and 0.83%, which concurred with intervals proposed in existing literature for softwoods. However, the kH inferred from the velocities obtained at MCs above the FSP increased (from 10% to 30%) with increasing density. The sound velocity under saturated conditions (Vsat) obtained by adjustment equations was 2–9% lower than the actual Vsat obtained from the tests. The obtained adjustment factors may be useful for the standardization of nondestructive timber grading based on ultrasound propagation.

Influence of moisture content on estimating Young’s modulus of full-scale timber using stress wave velocity

The effect of moisture content on the stress wave propagation velocity was investigated in order to estimate the Young’s modulus of full-scale timbers in an air-drying state using the measurement of stress wave propagation velocity above the fiber saturation point. Using Japanese cedar lumber, the velocity and the density under high-moisture condition and air-drying states were measured respectively; after measuring the modulus of elasticity in an air-drying state, the moisture content of each condition was measured. By performing numerical analysis on these data, the relationship between the moisture content and the rate of change of velocity of full-scale timbers was derived. This relationship was used to estimate the Young’s modulus of the timber in the air-drying state from the velocity in high-moisture condition. First, the velocity and the Young’s modulus in an air-drying state were estimated accurately from its density, moisture content and velocity under high-moisture condition. In cases where the density could not be measured, using the database of mechanical properties with the Monte Carlo simulation method, the Young’s modulus of the full-scale timber in an air-drying state might be estimated within 20% accuracy from its moisture content and velocity under high-moisture condition.

Mechanical properties of wood of two Mexican oaks: relationship to selected physical properties

The relationship between 27 mechanical parameters and density, shrinkage coefficients, moisture content, anisotropy ratio, and the fiber saturation point (FSP) in small specimens of Quercus crassifolia Humb. & Bonpl. and Q. laurina Humb. & Bonpl. wood, from Oaxaca, Mexico, is described. Wood from both oaks displayed low dimensional stability, while mechanical testing results revealed a strong material in most forms of stress, as well as a high impact-resistance wood. Wood mechanical properties in dry and green state were positively correlated with density, shrinkage coefficients, and FSP. Density was generally the single best predictor for mechanical strength, although the modulus of elasticity was a better predictor of the modulus of rupture in the bending tests. Univariate models to predict mechanical properties using the best regressor of the physical properties gave R2 values from 0.104 (p = 0.015) to 0.494 (p < 0.001), whereas multivariate regression significantly increased the predictive power of the models, with R2 values from 0.190 (p = 0.004) to 0.646 (p < 0.001).

An Investigation of the Drying Rate of Water in Wood at Different Relative Humidities Studied by Time Domain Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

The wood drying rate was determined at five different relative humidities (RHs) using time domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR). The objective of this study was to obtain the drying rate of bound water and free water, and to also build a relation between RH and drying rate. Two kinds of wood species, Qingpi poplar (Populus platyphylla var. glauca) and Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv. were employed for the spin-spin relaxation time (T2) measurement. The mass of free water and bound water during drying were obtained at the same time. The results indicated that the poplar specimens had a higher fiber saturation point (FSP). For both wood species, free water decreases quickly, which contributes to the main drying, especially at the beginning of drying, and still exists even when the moisture content (MC) is below the FSP. Bound water decreases slowly, and its equilibrium content ranges from less than 10% to more than 20%, in the order from lower RH to higher RH. In addition, the drying rate decreases linearly with increasing RH.

Studies on pre-treatment by compression for wood drying III: the reduction of moisture content, the recovery rate, and mechanical properties of wood compressed at different moisture content conditions

As a follow-up report, the pre-treatment by compression for wood drying was systematically studied in terms of the reduction of moisture content (MC), the recovery rate (RR), and mechanical properties of wood compressed at different MC conditions. The results showed that MC after compression on water-saturated wood determined the critical value of MC before compression which were about 84 and 105% at a compression ratio of 60 and 40% for Poplar and Chinese fir, respectively. Beyond the critical value, MC after compression remained constantly at about 84% and decreased slightly from 105% for Poplar and Chinese fir, respectively. The MC reduction decreased with the decrease of MC before compression. The MC reduction was rather effective when the MC before compression was higher than the critical value and was recommended to pre-treat for the effectiveness of MC reduction. In addition, after the recovery, the wood volume and mechanical properties were well retained for the wood compressed at all MC conditions which were above fiber saturation point (FSP) before and after compression. Therefore, the pre-treatment by compression is viable in terms of the RR and mechanical properties at rather broad MC conditions above FSP. Moreover, the compression force needed for treatment was almost same at these MC conditions.

Determination of moisture content and moisture content profiles in wood during drying by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance

ABSTRACTIn this article, the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance was used to measure the moisture content (MC) and MC profiles in poplar wood during real-time drying. The T2 distribution curve at each drying stage measured using the Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill pulse sequence provided detailed information in the dynamic change of free water as well as bound water of the whole wood sample. In addition, a new developed SE-SPI pulse sequence was first used to evaluate the spatially resolved T2 distribution of the successive nondestructive sliced layer of wood. Combined with the area integration method, the moisture content in each layer was calculated, and the change of MC profiles within wood at the MC above and below fiber saturation point was well reflected.

A method to estimate wood surface moisture content during drying

A method to estimate the surface moisture content below the fibre saturation point that is a function of the surface temperature, wet- and dry bulb temperatures, equilibrium moisture content, and fibre saturation point was evaluated. The method is based on the premise that the surface temperature is solely influenced by the surface moisture content and the climate that the surface is exposed to. The prediction model contends that the surface moisture content is equal to the fibre saturation point when the surface temperature is equal to the wet bulb temperature, and equal to the equilibrium moisture content when the surface temperature is equal to the dry bulb temperature, with a linear interpolation between those two points. The model thus predicts that the average moisture content of a thin piece of veneer can be predicted with fairly good accuracy. Also, when drying boards in a fast changing climate, e.g. fan reversals in industrial kilns, the surface temperature and surface moisture content should change as abruptly as the climate does. Additionally, the surface moisture content should correlate to the known drying phases, with a consistently high surface moisture content during the capillary phase when the wet line is close to the surface, and a quickly decreasing surface moisture content when the wet line moves into the wood during the transition to the diffusion phase. The prediction model was tested in these three scenarios and the results suggest that the basic premise is reasonable, and that the method is useful for surface moisture content estimation.

Xilotecnia of the wood of Acacia schaffneri from the State of Hidalgo, Mexico

The genus Acacia spp belongs to the family Leguminosae, with more than 1300 species distributed naturally in all continents except Europe. In Mexico there are 85 species, of which 46 are endemic, most located in arid and semiarid regions, being Acacia coulteri and Acacia farnesiana the most widely distributed. The aim of this study was to determine the technological characteristics of the wood of Acacia schaffneri. To determine the anatomical characteristics, the methodology of Autonomous Chapingo University’s wood anatomy laboratory was used; for the physical properties, standards NOM EE-117-1981 and NMX-EE-167-1983 were used, and in calculating the mechanical properties the mathematical formulas were employed. The wood is reddish brown and has interlocked grain with diffuse porosity, aliform confluent parenchyma and in confluent bands, and crystals and gums. The proportion of cells was 11,87% vessel elements, 50,65% fibers 27,76% axial parenchyma and 9,81% ray parenchyma. Basic density was 880 kg/m3, tangential, radial, axial and volumetric shrinkage values were 10,57%; 4,97%; 0,10% and 15,82 % respectively, and fiber saturation point was 19,97%. The mechanical properties were very high, so it can be used in the manufacture of floors and in building constructions.

Effect of Extractives on the Equilibrium Moisture Content and Shrinkage of Selected Tropical Wood Species

The main objective of this research was to investigate tropical wood sorptive properties. For selected tropical wood species (courbaril, ipe, light red meranti, merbau, tatajuba, and teak), the equilibrium moisture content was determined at 20 °C and 9, 30, 55, 70, and 97% relative humidity. The experimentally determined values were analysed using the Hailwood-Horrobin sorption model to compute the fibre saturation point and mono- and multi-layer sorption. There were significant differences in the sorption behaviour of different wood species. Generally, the fibre saturation point of tropical wood species is lower than in wood species from moderate climate zones. The lowest values of fibre saturation point were found for ipe (18.7%), courbaril (20.4%), and tatajuba (20.5%). Furthermore, chloroform-ethanol extractives content was correlated with multilayer sorption and the fibre saturation point, such that a higher content of chloroform-ethanol extractives was associated with a lower equilibrium moisture content. Therefore, chemisorption was not influenced by chloroform-ethanol extractives. Ethanol extracts showed an influence on monomolecular-bound water.

Moisture dynamics of thermally treated poplar plywood

The present study analyzes the moisture dynamics of thermally treated poplar plywood heated to 170, 190 and 210 °C through a thermo-vacuum process. The water absorption coefficient and the residual moisture content were determined using the floating and submersion methods (prEN 16818). Thermally treated poplar plywood was less reactive within the hygroscopic field, while it absorbed a higher amount of water beyond the fibre saturation point and maintained a higher moisture content at the end of the absorption/desorption cycle.

Wood species identification by near-infrared spectroscopy

An optimum artificial neural network and a partial least square with discriminant analysis regression were developed and tested for accuracy in distinguishing two wood species by using near-infrared (NIR) spectrum. A mixed population of kiln-dried wood boards of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) and amabilis fir (Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes) were scanned by NIR and then a random sub-set was water saturated under vacuum conditions and scanned again. This design aimed to capture the effect of moisture content above the fibre saturation point on the separation algorithms. Our results revealed that both modelling techniques can be effective tools for species recognition achieving correct identification of over 86% for fir and 94% for hemlock on either kiln-dried or fully saturated boards.

Modeling and numerical evaluation of effective thermal conductivities of fibre functionally graded materials

In this paper the problem of modeling functionally graded materials in the form of fibre composites filled with fibres of constant diameter is considered. The aim of modeling was to determine an effective thermal conductivity in direction of variable fibre saturation for this type of material. The discrete and continuous approach to calculating effective thermal conductivities was investigated and then numerical tests of the accuracy of the proposed approach were carried out using finite element method.

Moisture sorption isotherms and thermodynamic properties of Oak wood (Quercus robur and Quercus canariensis): optimization of the processing parameters

The aim of this paper was to determine the moisture desorption isotherms and essentials thermodynamic properties of two Oak wood varieties. Desorption isotherms were measured using a static gravimetric method at 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C within the range of 5–90 % relative humidity. The equilibrium moisture content decreased with increasing temperature and decreased with decreasing relative humidity at a constant temperature. The ‘Thermodynamic’ sorption equation was found to be the best for describing the experimental moisture sorption isotherms of woods within the range of temperature and water activity investigated. The Fiber saturation point, deduced from the ‘Thermodynamic’ model parameters, depends on the temperature and varying from 22.6 to 54.4 (% kg water/kg dry matter). Isosteric heat of desorption and differential entropy were calculated by applying Clausius–Clapeyron equation to the desorption data fitted by the ‘Thermodynamic’ model. The isosteric heat of desorption and the differential entropy decreased with increasing moisture content according to an exponential law equation and varying from 2.03 to 31.14 kJ/mol and from 73.98 to 4.34 J/(mol K), respectively. The linear relationship between differential enthalpy and entropy satisfied the enthalpy–entropy compensation theory. The sign of Gibbs free energy was found to be positive (+283 J/mol) and (+97 J/mol) for Quercus robur and Quercus canariensis, respectively. The isokinetic temperature was found to be greater than the harmonic temperature. Based on the enthalpy–entropy compensation theory, it could be concluded that the moisture desorption isotherm of Oak wood is a non-spontaneous and enthalpy-controlled process.

Moisture-dependent elastic characteristics of walnut and cherry wood by means of mechanical and ultrasonic test incorporating three different ultrasound data evaluation techniques

Ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive testing method of choice for estimating the anisotropic elastic properties of wood materials. This method is reliable for estimating the Young’s and shear moduli. However, its applicability to Poisson’s ratios remains uncertain. On the other hand, despite their destructive nature, mechanical tests allow a direct measurement of all elastic properties including the Poisson’s ratios. In some cases (e.g. when assessing cultural heritage objects), destructive testing may not be an option. In this work, two types of hardwood walnut (Juglans regia L.) and cherry (Prunus avium L.), which often appear on cultural heritage objects, were tested using both ultrasonic and mechanical testing methods under four different moisture conditions below fibre saturation point. The results show that a higher moisture condition leads to a decrease in material elasticity. For walnut wood, their longitudinal Young’s modulus (\(E_{\rm L}\)) was reduced by 679 MPa under the compression load for a one per cent increase in moisture content. Moreover, three ultrasound data evaluation techniques, which differ in the way they incorporate the Poisson’s ratios (full stiffness inversion, simplified uncorrected, and simplified corrected), were used to estimate the Young’s moduli (E). The main goal is to obtain reliable material parameters using the ultrasound test. As a result, it is concluded that the chosen data evaluation method influences the accuracy of the calculated E. In a certain case, the simplified-corrected method, which requires only one specimen type, gave a closer agreement to mechanical tests (e.g. \(\Delta E_{\rm T}=6\,\%\) deviation on mechanical results). In another case, the full-stiffness-inversion method, which requires four specimen types, gave the best estimation (e.g. \(\Delta E_{\rm L}=2\,\%\)). In this corresponding direction, the simplified-corrected method can only partially reduce the overestimation of the simplified uncorrected from \(\Delta E_{\rm L}=47\) to 32 %. The variation of E produced by different evaluation procedures is due to the different correction factor values, which is a consequence of the variation in \(\nu\).

Secagem da Madeira de Louro Preto (Nectandra cuspidata) em Estufa de Micro-ondas

RESUMO A secagem por micro-ondas em um futuro próximo irá desempenhar importante papel na industrialização da madeira, pois dela depende a melhora da estabilidade dimensional e aumento da resistência mecânica, dentre outras. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a secagem da madeira de louro preto utilizando o processo por micro-ondas e sua influência na formação de rachaduras, no tempo de secagem e na umidade final. Foi utilizado o programa desenvolvido para a madeira de mogno em função da semelhança entre os valores de suas densidades básicas. Foram realizadas 3 secagens, tendo a secagem S1 com umidade inicial média acima do PSF após 2 h 25 min chegado aos 13,99% de umidade final média. As secagens S2 e S3 com umidade inicial média abaixo do PSF depois de 2 h 08 min e 2 h 02 min apresentaram 14% e 14,62% de umidade final média, respectivamente. As secagens foram consideradas rápidas, e a diferença de umidade inicial das amostras mostrou que sofreram influência dos tratamentos na formação dos defeitos de rachaduras de topo e de superfície. A secagem S2 mostrou-se mais propensa em apresentar rachaduras de superfície do que rachaduras de topo, enquanto as rachaduras internas não se formaram em nenhuma das secagens realizadas.

DETERMINATION OF FIBRE SATURATION POINT OF SELECTED TROPICAL WOOD SPECIES USING DIFFERENT METHODS

DETERMINATION OF FIBRE SATURATION POINT OF SELECTED TROPICAL WOOD SPECIES USING DIFFERENT METHODS

Effect of autohydrolysis on the wettability, absorbility and further alkali impregnation of poplar wood chips

Autohydrolysis with different severity factors was performed on poplar wood chips prior to pulping, and the wettability, absorbility and the following impregnation of NaOH solution for the poplar wood chips were then investigated. The results showed that after autohydrolysis pretreatment the porosity, shrinkage and fiber saturation point (FSP) of the poplar wood chips were increased, while the surface contact angle decreased as the severity factor was increased. The autohydrolyzed chips absorbed more NaOH in impregnation that resulted in a low NaOH concentration in the bulk impregnation liquor (i.e., the impregnation liquor outside wood chips), while the concentration in the entrapped liquor (i.e., the impregnation liquor inside wood chips) was increased. Autohydrolysis substantially improved the effectiveness of alkali impregnation.