Fiber Dimensions Research Articles

Towards realistic predictions of microplastic fiber transport in aquatic environments: Secondary motions

Microplastics fibers are abundant in aquatic environments and are an emerging environmental threat. Understanding how fibers are transported in aquatic environments is essential for identifying pollution hotspots and developing remediation strategies. Over recent years, an increasing number of drag models have been proposed to describe the transport of microplastics in aquatic environments. However, none of the proposed models consider secondary motions, which are responsible for non-vertical settling motions. To investigate the role of secondary motions, an experimental setup with an image processing technique was developed to capture the spatial-temporal kinematics of microplastic fibers settling in quiescent water. A new drag model, which adopts the crosswise sphericity to consider the effects of secondary motions of a microplastic fiber and the Aschenbrenner shape factor to account for the unique morphology of the microplastic fiber, was proposed and evaluated. Secondary motions of microplastic fibers have profound effects on their settling trajectories and deposited positions. The settling motion and drag coefficient of a microplastic fiber is an orientation-dependent process. Moreover, the secondary motion is strongly dependent on the fiber dimension and density. The here-proposed drag model is proven to more accurately characterize the settling motion of microplastic fibers compared to existing models that neglect secondary motions. The methodology and model from this study can be used to progress towards improved and realistic predictions of the transport of microplastic fibers in aquatic environments.

Fully Synthetic 3D Fibrous Scaffolds for Stromal Tissues—Replacement of Animal‐Derived Scaffold Materials Demonstrated by Multilayered Skin (Adv. Mater. 10/2022)

Porous Fibrous Scaffolds The dimensions of electrospun fibers are predestined for synthetic replacement of extracellular matrix structures. In article number 2106780, Tobias Weigel and co-workers generate highly porous electrospun scaffolds, featuring an ensemble of loose fibers and pores of appropriate size to enable applications in engineering animal-free 3D biomedical tissues. The mechanical properties and structural composition describe a tradeoff between current synthetic porous scaffolds and animal-derived hydrogels, which are deployed as electrospun-based multilayered skin equivalents.

Research on optical sparse code division multiple access encoding technology based on a multi-core fiber.

Sparse code division multiple access (SCMA) technology is one of the main technologies of 5G (5th Generation Mobile Communication Technology). Applying SCMA technology to the field of optical communication has broad prospects, which solves the access problem of a large number of users in optical access network. In this paper, a transmission system based on SCMA over multi-core fiber is proposed. The SCMA coding signal transmission at 30 Gb/s is successfully implemented on a seven-core fiber, which four of seven-core is only used. Its bit error rate (BER) can achieve forward error correction (FEC) limit (BER is 3.8 × 10-3) when the received optical power is -10 dBm. And this experiment verifies the performance of the proposed scheme. In addition, we propose a scheme to reduce the complexity of message passing algorithm (MPA) at the receiver by using the core of fiber dimension. Compared with original MPA, this scheme reduces the number of users superimposed on the same resource block. From the second experiment, for a BER of FEC limit the SNR penalty is∼1 dB for the proposed MPA compared to original MPA. The research of this paper provides a feasible scheme for the next generation of optical access network.

Anatomical Response of Regenerated Bark in Terminalia arjuna(Roxb.) Wight & Arn.

Terminalia arjuna is a large tropical tree whose both original and regenerated bark is commercially exploited for medicinal purpose Terminalia arjuna mainly to cure cardiac diseases. For sustainable supply of Arjuna bark, the regenerated bark of tree is usually harvested within 18-24 months with controlled wounding at different girth classes. During course of investigation, it was found that the biomass and rigidity of regenerated bark was higher than original bark in each girth-class of tree. To explore the reason for higher biomass and rigidity in the regenerated bark of , Arjunaa comparative anatomical investigation was carried out between original and regenerated bark from randomly selected trees of middle girthclass (50-75cm). Results showed that there was significantly higher proportion of phloem fibres and ray cells and lower proportion of sieve tubes in regenerated bark in comparison to original bark. Most of the fibre dimensions and ray parameters varied between original and regenerated bark and also between first and second harvest of the regenerated bark. The wounded tree gives first preference to the protection of the injured bark from surroundings rather than food conduction through sieve tubes.

Role of socioemotional wealth (SEW) in the internationalisation of family firms

PurposeFamily firms' desire to preserve and uphold socioemotional wealth (SEW) makes their internationalisation a complex phenomenon. Despite the significance of SEW in guiding family firms' internationalisation decisions, the literature in the underlying research stream is still scant and inconclusive. Thus, the purpose of the study is to gain preliminary insights about various dimensions of SEW and its impact on family firms' degree of internationalisation.Design/methodology/approachThe study employs the multi-case study research design. The multidimensional SEW scale developed by Berrone et al. (2012) is used to calculate the SEW scores for four prominent Indian family businesses through the content analysis of Chairman's Statements for a period of 13 years (2007–08 to 2019–20). Further, the study examines the relationship between SEW and family firms' degree of internationalisation through two non-parametric tests: Somers' D and Kendall-Theil regression.FindingsThe results reveal the prevalence of various dimensions of SEW in family businesses. They also indicate that different FIBER dimensions are prioritised differently in family businesses. Finally, the authors observe that there exists a negative relationship between SEW and internationalisation of family businesses, indicating that SEW hinders the internationalisation of family firms.Research limitations/implicationsThe study lends to the readers, the understanding that SEW plays a significant role in the internationalisation of family firms; thus, some modification might be needed in the existing international business theories in order to explain the role of peculiar family characteristics in the internationalisation decisions of family firms. Further, since SEW hinders the internationalisation of family firms, it raises a question for researchers and family business leaders: Do family firms need to work on their socioemotional ties to avoid making suboptimal decisions?Originality/valueThe study is a response to the call by Cleary et al. (2019) to utilise the results of content analysis of SEW in determining its impact on the family firms' external events. Majority of the studies are still using univariate measures (e.g. percentage of family ownership) to capture SEW. However, this study attempts to calculate the SEW scores of the family firms along these FIBER dimensions through content analysis. This helps in scrupulously capturing the impact of SEW in the internationalisation of family firms.

Design and fabrication of biodegradable electrospun nanofibers loaded with biocidal agents

Electrospinning, a versatile nanofiber processing technique, has acquired considerable attention over conventional nanofiber fabrication methods owing to its inherent advantages, such as reasonable control over fiber dimensions, scalability, process convenience, and applicability towards an extensive array of materials. Electrospun biodegradable polymer nanofibers based on Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), Poly(β-hydroxybutyrate-β-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), Polycaprolactone (PCL), and Polylactic acid (PLA) incorporating various biocidal agents for biomedical applications which embodies tissue engineering scaffolds, wound dressing and drug delivery would be addressed here. This review also provides an insight into computational studies of polymers loaded with nanoparticles to examine the interaction studies between them.

Adsorption of paper strength additives to hardwood fibres with different surface charges and their effect on paper strength

Light-weight paper products that contain less fibres, but with a maintained bulk and improved strength properties, are highly desirable due to the low cost of raw materials and improved logistics of packaged goods. In this respect, the adsorption capacity of dry strength additives onto fibres, which is affected by the surface charge of said fibres, is very important for the development of these mechanically robust paper products. The influence of the surface charge on the adsorption of strength additives was investigated for, dissolving grade fibres, kraft fibres and kraft fibres modified with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with different surface charge densities, but the same fibre dimensions. The strength additives investigated were cationic starch (CS), anionic polyacrylamide (APAM) and polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs), containing CS and APAM. A linear relationship was found between the surface charge of the fibres and the saturated adsorbed amount of CS. However, when either APAM or PECs adsorbed as secondary layers onto the CS, no correlation between cellulose charge and the saturation adsorption could be observed. The adsorption of APAM was dramatically affected by the pre-adsorbed amount of CS, whereas PECs were less influenced. Moreover, the additives improved the tensile strength (60%) and strain at break (> 100%) of handsheets formed with the kraft fibres and adsorbed APAM. It was also found that CS/APAM increased the sheet density while CS/PECs lowered it. In conclusion, the gained fundamental understanding of these adsorption of additives is of significant importance to facilitate the industrial development of sustainable low-cost high-end packaging products.Graphical abstract

Trachea features and fiber dimensions of fast-growing tree: A case study on wood samples from eastern Indonesia

Fast-growing plant is one of the characteristics of pioneer plants. Commonly, the plants grow in areas that is exposed to sunlight such as open area and forest edges. Fast-growing plants have different anatomical and physical wood characteristics compare with slow-growing plants. Therefore, this study aims to examine the anatomical characteristics of fast-growing plants, especially trees, namely the fiber cells and trachea features. A total of 33 wood samples from 28 species were used in this study. We used wood samples from Eastern Indonesia deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense. Examined wood samples are taken from branches with 1-2 cm of diameter. The anatomical characters observed were focused on two types of cells, namely fiber cells (fiber length, fiber diameter, fiber cell wall thickness, lumen width, identification of septate fibers and fibers pit) and the trachea (perforation type, pit arrangement, and pit form). From the observations of all wood samples showed that the length of fiber cells are classified as short (18 species) and medium (10 species) fiber. There are two groups of fiber cell wall thickness viz. very thin (16 species) and thin to thick (12 species). Septate fibers only found in 7 species especially Chisocheton and Teijsmanniodendron. Fiber’s pit observed in Horsfieldia parviflora, Mallotus peltatus, dan Neuburgia corynocarpa. All species have simple tracheal perforation with alternate or opposite pit arrangement. Moreover, branch wood samples have polygonal pit shape, oval or combination of those two shapes were found in some species, such as Horsfieldia parviflora, Sandoricum koetjape and Teijsmanniodendron bogoreinse.

Growth attributes and wood properties of lesser-grown agroforestry tree species in the semi-arid zone for quality pulp and paper production

Growth traits, wood properties, fibre dimensions and fibre derived indices of five lesser-grown agroforestry tree species viz., Ailanthus excelsa, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Leucaena leucocephala, Melia dubia and Neolamarckia cadamba were studied to evaluate the suitability of these species for pulp and paper production in the semi-arid zone of Bundelkhand, India. The result showed that there was a significant variation for all the studied traits. The range of all the studied growth and wood traits among five pulpwood trees were recorded for tree height (5.2-5.9 m), GBH (20-24 cm), volume (0.017-0.027 m3), biomass (8.50-15.28 kg), wood basic density (509.6-584.4 kg/m3), fibre length (819.8-1416.0 μm), fibre diameter (14.6-37.9 μm), fibre lumen diameter (7.5-29.8 μm), fibre double cell wall thickness (4.8-9.7 μm), Runkel ratio (0.23-0.94), Rigidity coefficient (0.19-0.49), Flexibility coefficient (51.54-81.44), Slenderness ratio (31.68-62.74) and Luce’s shape factor (0.20-0.58). Kadamb performed better, however all five species were found to be suitable for making good quality pulp and paper on the basis of wood properties and fibre derived indices grown in such hot and dry conditions. Tree height and GBH traits were positively influenced on the wood physical and anatomical properties, therefore these traits can be used as indirect selection for further improvement of the species which shown high potentiality for promising pulpwood tree species under agroforestry. Further, tree improvement research work required to test the suitable harvesting period for high pulp yield and better paper quality to fulfil the fastest growing demand of pulpwood for paper industries in India.

Effects of Valproic Acid and Mitomycin C Combination Therapy in a Rabbit Model of Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery.

PurposeThis study aimed to compare the effectiveness of combination therapy consisting of low-dose mitomycin C (MMC) and valproic acid (VPA) against high-dose MMC for improving the scar phenotype in minimally invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS).MethodsA rabbit model of MIGS incorporating the PreserFlo MicroShunt was treated with high (0.4 mg/mL) or low (0.1 mg/mL) doses of MMC or with combination therapy consisting of low-dose (0.1 mg/mL) MMC and VPA. Operated eyes were examined by live ocular imaging, histochemical evaluation, multiphoton quantitation of collagen characteristics, and molecular analyses.ResultsAlthough high-dose MMC obliterated the vasculature, combination therapy vastly improved the postoperative tissue morphology by maintaining the vasculature without increased vascularization. Combination therapy also altered collagen morphology and reduced encapsulation of the MicroShunt distal end, which remained at risk with MMC treatment alone. Multiphoton quantitation indicated that the combination therapy significantly reduced collagen density and fiber dimensions compared with monotherapy. At the molecular level, combination therapy significantly reduced Vegfa, Vegfc, and Vegfd expression and inhibited Col1a1 upregulation from baseline levels, all of which low-dose MMC alone was unable to achieve. Notably, COL1A1 protein levels appeared more consistently suppressed by combination therapy compared with high-dose MMC alone.ConclusionsCompared with high-dose MMC, combination therapy was less toxic by sparing the vasculature and potentially more effective in reducing scarring via the regulation of collagen content and organization.Translational RelevanceVPA may be combined with low-dose MMC to replace high-dose MMC to deliver safe and effective anti-scarring outcomes.

Spatial variation of eucalyptus fibres considering the structure of annual growth rings

Background: The fibres dimensions vary along a tree trunk, and these variations are related to the apical meristem and vascular cambium activities; understanding these variations would guide the best use of wood. There have been studies on the pattern of fibres dimensions variation along the tree trunk in the radial and longitudinal directions; however, the vast majority do not take into account the structure of the annual growth rings. Hence, this study aimed to obtain the pattern of fibres dimensions variation and their quality indexes along the tree trunk take into account the structure of the annual growth rings. Two Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid clones were used in the study. Ten-year-old trees were selected and discs were removed from 13 longitudinal positions. The disks were prepared and the growth rings were subsequently identified and the samples used for maceration were collected. Twenty fibres were measured in the annual growth rings present in each longitudinal position. Results: In the longitudinal direction, within the annual growth rings, the fibre dimensions and their quality indices did not show a well-defined pattern of variation. In the radial direction, the length, cell wall thickness, wall fraction, and Runkel ratio of the fibres tended to increase following the pith-bark direction, while the lumen diameter and flexibility coefficient decreased. Conclusion: Nevertheless, the fibre width and fibre slenderness index did not present a well-defined pattern of variation in the radial direction.

Production of kraft pulp from Ochroma pyramidale wood

ABSTRACT Brazil stands out in the international scenario in the production of short-fiber pulp. Despite the great Brazilian biodiversity, that production is based on exotic Eucalyptus clones. In this sense, there may be great potential in the assessment of new sources of fibers from the Brazilian flora, including the Amazon. The present study aimed to assess the technical potential of the wood of Ochroma pyramidale (Malvaceae) for the production of kraft pulp. Four-year-old trees were harvested from a commercial forest for lumber production in Mato Grosso state (Brazil). We determined the wood’s chemical compositions (holocellulose, Klason lignin, soluble lignin, extractives and ash contents), physical properties (density and porosity), and fiber morphology (fiber length, width and thickness, lumen diameter, wall fraction, coefficient of flexibility, and slenderness and Runkel ratios). The wood was subjected to pulping with an effective alkali charge ranging from 10 to 24%, with intervals of 2%. Ochroma pyramidale wood presented characteristics favorable to the production of cellulosic pulp, such as appropriate fiber dimensions and low lignin, extractives, and ash content. The amount of residual active alkali and pH of the black liquor were positively related to the increase of the alkali charge employed in the pulping process. The increase of alkali charge decreased the pulp yield, kappa number and waste content, and increased the hexenuronic acid concentration.

Public health risks from asbestos cement roofing.

There is no identified risk‐free threshold exposure to asbestos. Based on epidemiology and toxicology, asbestos fiber dimensions have been implicated in causing asbestos‐related diseases. Phase‐contrast microscopy provides only a limited index of exposure to fiber dimensions implicated in mesothelioma induction. Installed asbestos‐containing materials (ACMs) create an ongoing risk of intense exposure during natural disasters and remodeling, along with low‐level exposure arising from the continual emission of airborne asbestos into the environment arising from weathering of installed ACM. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated a risk of disease associated with proximity to asbestos cement roofing (ACR), while ongoing environmental emissions of asbestos from installed ACR have also been demonstrated. Owing to the limitations of the available data, a precautionary approach is warranted; asbestos‐free roofing materials should be used in new construction and existing ACR should be removed at the earliest opportunity.

The scientific principles and technological determinants of haemodialysis membranes.

ABSTRACTIn most biological or industrial (including medical) separation processes, a membrane is a semipermeable barrier that allows or achieves selective transport between given compartments. In haemodialysis (HD), the semipermeable membrane is in a tubular geometry in the form of miniscule pipes (hollow fibres) and separation processes between compartments involve a complex array of scientific principles and factors that influence the quality of therapy a patient receives. Several conditions need to be met to accomplish the selective and desired removal of substances from blood in the inner cavity (lumen) of the hollow fibres and across the membrane wall into the larger open space surrounding each fibre. Current HD membranes have evolved and improved beyond measure from the experimental membranes available in the early developmental periods of dialysis. Today, the key functional determinants of dialysis membranes have been identified both in terms of their potential to remove uraemic retention solutes (termed ‘uraemic toxins’) as well subsidiary criteria they must additionally fulfill to avoid undesirable patient reactions or to ensure safety. The production of hundreds of millions of kilometres of hollow fibre membranes is truly a technological achievement to marvel, particularly in ensuring that the fibre dimensions of wall thickness and inner lumen diameter and controlled porosity—all so vital to core solute removal and detoxification functions of dialysis—are maintained for every centimetre length of the fragile fibres. Production of membranes will increase in parallel with the increase in the number of chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients expected to require HD therapies in the future. The provision of high-quality care entails detailed consideration of all aspects of dialysis membranes, as quality cannot in any way be compromised for the life-sustaining—like the natural membranes within all living organisms—function artificial dialysis membranes serve.

Coupled specimen and fiber dimensions influence measurement on the properties of fiber-reinforced soil

The coupled influence of fiber length and specimen dimensions on the results of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests is measured in this study. Three types of fiber, namely waste tire textile fibers (WTTF), date palm (DP) and polypropylene fibers (PP) in three different lengths have been prepared and added to a sandy soil. Three different specimen diameters of 71, 100 and 151 mm were tested. The results prove that the type and length of fiber, and diameter of the specimen strongly affect the results. Specimens with a diameter of 100 and 150 mm show identical trend with a much more limited difference compared to the specimens with a diameter of 71 mm. The effect of fiber length is observed to be a function of specimen dimension and type of fiber. In all cases, fiber length is most influential in smaller specimens. This parameter is most and least influential in DP and WTTF, respectively.

WOOD EVALUATION OF Eucalyptus pellita F.Muell. AND Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith AS POTENTIAL FOR PULP AND PAPER PRODUCTION

This paper aimed to determine the quality indexes for paper and cellulose based on the fiber features from two wood species of interest, Eucalyptus pellita and E. tereticornis. The mean annual increment (IMA) was calculated by measuring DBH and Height (25 years), a 10 cm disk from each tree was collected for density determinations and anatomical studies for cellulose and paper. Tree height, trunk diameter at 1.30 m in height (DBH), and volume per tree were higher in E. pellita when compared to E. tereticornis. The volume per hectare and average annual increment were higher in E. tereticornis compared to E. pellita. Based on the quality indexes calculated from fiber dimensions, we did not observe any variation in flexibility coefficient between the two species; however, this index was more heterogeneous with the lowest value in E. tereticornis pith. Eucalyptus pellita showed a lower wall fraction value, including a lower overall value in pith. The Runkel index was lowest in E. pellita; in addition, the highest value, above 1, was found in pith position in E. tereticornis. The slenderness index did not differ between species and it was not possible to detect which had performed better. The results indicate that E. pellita and E. tereticornis have potential for the production of paper with high mechanical resistance, such as writing, printing and packaging. The wood of both species has potential for use in producing paper and cellulose.

Improvement of the Mechanical Behavior of Composite Materials with Different Binders Based on Local Plant Fibers Alfa and Diss

Abstract Concerned about the environmental and economic impact, composite materials are increasingly used in the construction sector. Indeed, the use of plant fibers as reinforcement in construction materials have been the subject of several researches in recent years; the main motivation is the weight gain combined with high mechanical characteristics. The objective of this research concerns the study of the physicomechanical properties of composite materials with cement and clay matrices reinforced with Alfa and Diss fibers with dimensions ranging from 2 to 8 cm. This involves evaluating the performance of these materials according to the formulation, for a volume ratio (Alfa or Diss / Matrix fibers equal to 4), using dry fibers and pre-wetted fibers. The study of the mechanical properties showed a drop of the performance for both compression and bending strength compared to the reference material without adding fibers (cement or clay paste). It should be noted that the best mechanical performance is obtained for the case of composites materials with cementitious matrix with pre-wetted fibers. On the other hand, in the case of composites with clayey matrices, pre-wetting does not improve the mechanical characteristics. It is also noted that the best dimensions of fibers which improve the mechanical characteristics in bending are generally 6 cm for composites with a clay matrix and between 2 and 4 cm for cementitious composites. In all cases, the fibers in composite materials with cement or clay matrix create a bridging effect, making it possible to limit the progression of cracks during loading. This phenomenon gives to the various composite materials a ductile behavior.

Commercial Wet-Spun Singlewall and Dry-Spun Multiwall Carbon Nanotube Fiber Surface O-Functionalization by Ozone Treatment.

In this work, we demonstrate controlled introduction of O-functional groups on commercial carbon nanotube fibers (CNTFs) with different nanotube morphologies obtained by dry- and wet-spinning by treatment with gaseous ozone (O₃(g)). Our test samples were (1) wet-spun fibers of smalldiameter (1-2 nm) singlewall (SW)-CNTs and (2) dry-spun fibers containing large-diameter (20 nm) multiwall (MW)-CNTs. Our results indicate that SW-CNTFs undergo oxygenation to a higher extent than MW-CNTFs due to the higher reactivity of SW-CNTs with a larger curvature strain. Oxygenation resulting from O₃ exposure was evidenced as increase in surface O atomic% (at% by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS) and as reductions in G/D (by Raman spectroscopy) as well as electrical conductivities due to changes in nanotube graphitic structure. By XPS, we identified the emergence of various types of O-functionalities on the fiber surfaces. After long duration O3 exposure (>300 s for SW-CNTFs and >600 s for MW-CNTFs), both sp² C═O (carbonyl) and sp³ C-O moieties (ether/hydroxy) were observed on fiber surfaces. Whereas, only sp³ C-O (ether/hydroxy) components were observed after shorter exposure times. O₃ treatment led to only changes in surface chemistry, while the fiber morphology, microstructure and dimensions remained unaltered. We believe the surface chemistry controllability demonstrated here on commercial fibers spun by different methods containing nanotubes of different structures is of significance in aiding the practical application development of CNTFs.

Circular large core optical elastomer waveguides fabricated by using direct microdispense fabrication method

The direct microdispensing method used for the fabrication of the optical polymer waveguides was demonstrated. The applied method allowed fabricated optical channel waveguides with circular shapes. Optical polydimethylsiloxane elastomers used for the core and cladding layer allowed fabricated optical flexible waveguides with high temperature and chemical stability. The dimensions of the waveguides were optimized for the dimension of the optical fiber with a core diameter of 500 µm. The applied materials allowed transmitted light for visible and near-infrared spectrums. The average values of the optical losses were lower than − 0.42 dB/cm at 650 nm, − 0.40 dB/cm at 850 nm, − 0.5 dB/cm at 1300 nm and − 2.06 dB/cm at 1550 nm.

CdSNPs@NPAN‐rGO‐PAN electrospinning film with enhanced photocatalytic activity via adjusting the fiber dimension

AbstractIn the paper, we report that CdSNPs@NPAN‐PAN and CdSNPs@NPAN‐rGO‐PAN composite photocatalysts were prepared by in situ growing CdS nanoparticles (CdSNPs) and N‐polyaniline (NPAN) on electrospinning films. The largest specific surface area of a fiber was made by adjusting the fiber diameter, and the photocurrent response and photodegradation of rhodamine B (RhB) experiments showed a more prominent current response and photocatalytic capacity for the CdSNPs@NPAN‐rGO‐PAN composite photocatalysts in contrast to the pure CdSNPs and CdSNPs@NPAN‐PAN photocatalysts. The nitrogen atoms on NPAN have hydrophilicity, and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) has large specific surface and high‐speed electron conductivity characteristics, which are the main factors for improving the catalytic performance. In addition, various other characterization methods had proven that CdSNPs@NPAN‐rGO‐PAN catalyst has better photocatalytic performance, and the feasible photocatalytic mechanism and cooperative effects were further analyzed in detail.