Feminine Gender Role Research Articles

The Protective Role of Commitment to Social Change in the Relationship Between Women’s Sexist Experiences and Self-Silencing

Sexism is a stressor for many women and is related to a host of harmful psychosocial outcomes, including silencing oneself in social relationships. The present study examined the relationships among sexist experiences, endorsement of traditional feminine gender roles, commitment to social change, and self-silencing among a sample of 261 women. Results revealed that recent sexist experiences and endorsement of traditional feminine gender roles significantly and positively predicted self-silencing, whereas a commitment to social change significantly and negatively predicted self-silencing. In addition, lifetime sexist experiences were associated with greater self-silencing for women with low levels of commitment to social change, but not for women with average or high levels, suggesting a buffering effect. Women who were less committed to social change demonstrated higher levels of self-silencing when sexual objectification experiences were less frequent; women with higher levels of commitment to social change were less likely to self-silence, regardless of the frequency of sexual objectification experiences. Thus, it is important to explore women’s sexist experiences and gender roles attitudes and to locate women’s self-silencing within a sexist sociocultural context. Moreover, fostering a commitment to social change may be a promising intervention for reducing the impact of sexist events on women’s self-silencing.

High School Final Year Students’ Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy, Attachment Styles and Gender Role Orientations

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relation between final year high school students’ career decision-making self-efficacy and attachment styles. The research group consisted of 808 final year students selected at random and receiving high school education in the province of Trabzon, Turkey in the 2013–2014 academic years. Participants completed a Personal Data Form prepared by the researchers, the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale in order to measure career decision-making self-efficacy, the Relationship Scales Questionnaire and the BEM Gender role Inventory. Results showed that career decision making efficacy was significantly correlated with the secure and fearful and attachment styles, and career decision making self-efficacy varied according to gender roles. Subjects with masculine and feminine gender roles had greater career decision making self-efficacy than those with indeterminate roles, and those with androgynous roles had greater career making self-efficacy than those with masculine, feminine or indeterminate gender roles.

Gender Violence within the Inter American System of Human Rights Protection. The Resurgence of Gender Cultural Construct

Within the Inter-American system of human rights protection, the concept of gender based violence is a permanent issue that requires multidimensional approaches of cultural nature. In the present paper we aim to demonstrate the manner in which the cultural factor influences and determines the etiology of violence directed against women. In our argument, we will take into account two concepts that determines the gender roles within the Inter-American System: marianismo (the expression of the feminine gender role) and machismo (the expression of the male gender role), advancing the work hypothesis according to which, the interrelationship between those two concepts determines social behavioural and mental conducts which designate an inferior position to women. In the same token, we will develop the hypothesis according to which, the cultural factor was recognized as a primary source of the gender based violence phenomenon at the legal level, in this sense being prescribed the legal approach advanced by the Belem do Para Convention which connects the cultural factor with gender and with the forms of violence that are addressed to women. From the methodological perspective, we will apply the deductive reasoning by first indicating the peculiarities of the two concepts that are auxiliary in constructing gender roles (marianismo and machismo) and secondly demonstrating, by means of the hermeneutical method, the manner in which, the interaction between the two concepts may generate the social and juridical reality of femicide – which is an extreme form of violence against women. The deductive method will also be implemented in order to ensure the structure of the paper; meanwhile, the hermeneutical method will be applied at a substantial level, facilitating the demonstration of the hypothesis and, overall, the entire argument.

Comparison of Masculine and Feminine Gender Roles in Iranian Patients with Gender Identity Disorder.

IntroductionGender identity disorders (GID) are heterogeneous disorders that may be influenced by culture and social norms.AimThe aim of this study was to determine masculine and feminine gender roles in a group of Iranian patients with GID and compare these roles with two control groups.MethodsTwelve male‐to‐female (MF) and 27 female‐to‐male (FM) individuals with GID referred to Tehran Psychiatric Institute in Tehran, I. R. Iran were evaluated by self‐report inventories and were compared with two groups of healthy controls (81 men and 89 women). Diagnoses were established based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM‐IV) criteria. Data analysis was done using analysis of variance and chi‐squared test.Main Outcome MeasuresMasculine and feminine gender roles were assessed by two questionnaires: (i) Gender‐Masculine (GM) and Gender‐Feminine (GF) scales derived from the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory‐2 (MMPI‐2); (ii) Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI).ResultsIn the scales of masculinity, MF‐GID individuals scored as male controls, but lower than female controls. FM‐GID individuals scored similar to female controls and higher than male controls. In femininity scales, MF‐GID individuals and control women seemed similar, and both scored higher than the other groups. FM‐GID persons were considered less feminine than both controls in the GF scale of MMPI‐2, but not in the BSRI. In both scales, FM‐GID persons had higher scores than control women and MF‐GID individuals.ConclusionIranian FM‐GID individuals were less feminine than normal men. However, MF‐GID individuals were similar to normal women or more feminine. Cultural considerations remain to be investigated. Alavi K, Eftekhar M and Jalali Nadoushan AH. Comparison of masculine and feminine gender roles in Iranian patients with gender identity disorder. Sex Med 2015;3:261–268.

Two Traditions of Research on Gender Identity

Gender identity reflects people’s understanding of themselves in terms of cultural definitions of female and male. In this article, we identify two traditions of research on gender identity that capture different aspects of masculine and feminine gender roles. The classic personality approach to gender identity differentiates communal from agentic traits and interests. The gender self-categorization approach comprises identification with the social category of women or men. Based on the compatibility principle, each approach should predict behaviors within the relevant content domain. Thus, personality measures likely predict communal and agentic behaviors, whereas gender self-categorization measures likely predict group-level reactions such as ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation. Researchers have the option of using one or the other conception of gender identity, depending on their particular question of interest. Relying primarily on research conducted in the U.S., we show that both traditions provide insight into the ways that gendered self concepts link the social roles of women and men with their individual cognitions, emotions, and behaviors.

The Femininity Ideology Scale (FIS): Dimensions and Its Relationship to Anxiety and Feminine Gender Role Stress

The purpose of this study was to conduct a confirmatory factor analytic investigation of the Femininity Ideology Scale (FIS) and to assess whether feminine gender role stress mediated the relationship between femininity ideology and anxiety. During the 2010–2011 academic year, a convenience sample of 606 college women were recruited from three universities and one college. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a four- versus the hypothesized five-factor model, resulting in the elimination of the Dependency/Deference factor. Mediation analysis using structural equation modeling indicated no direct relationship between Femininity Ideology and Anxiety, although an indirect one was observed, mediated through Feminine Gender Role Stress. The results are discussed in terms of possible changes in contemporary notions of femininity, and the utility of using the FIS in applied therapeutic settings.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENTREPRENEURIAL RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE FRANCHISE CONTEXT

This study examines how entrepreneurial relationship variables such as trust, conflict, interpersonal justice (IJ) and satisfaction differ among a group of male and female franchisees. Results suggest differences exist between these two groups in relation to conflict, IJ and trust with their franchisor. These results are consistent with research on feminine gender roles and research that suggests female entrepreneurs are more relationship oriented throughout the entrepreneurial process. The results further make a case for the importance of empirically examining different entrepreneurial relationship variables in future research on gender and entrepreneurship, and illustrate the power of the franchising business model in breaking down potential barriers of gender discrimination for female entrepreneurs.

Influence of Biological Sex and Gender Roles on Ethicality

Earlier evidence predominantly supports that women are more ethical than men. With the replication of such a hypothesis for testing, this study further examined whether feminine gender roles are a better predictor of ethical attitudes, ethical behaviors, and corporate responsibility values than the biological sex. Four hundred ten management students from two technical institutes in eastern India participated in this study. Along with the socio-demographic variables in the questionnaire, inventories were used to assess gender roles, ethical attitudes, ethical behaviors, and corporate responsibility values. The inventories had acceptable reliability and validity. The results suggested that when the confounding effects of age, caste, and rural/urban origin are controlled, women manifest higher corporate responsibility values than men, but they embody similar ethical attitudes and ethical behaviors as men. Furthermore, the feminine roles of the participants were found to be more consistent, potent, and direct predictors of ethical attitudes, ethical behaviors, and corporate responsibility values than the biological sex. Hence, individuals with feminine roles may be better suited for ethical responsibilities.

The Erotic‐Chaste Dialectic and the New Southern Belle Code at the High School Prom: Feminine Gender Role Stress across Ethnic and Socio‐Economic Factors

The Erotic‐Chaste Dialectic and the New Southern Belle Code at the High School Prom: Feminine Gender Role Stress across Ethnic and Socio‐Economic Factors

Effects of Gender Role and Family Support on Work Adjustment Among Male Flight Attendants in Taiwan

The occupation of flight attendant traditionally carries strong gender connotations and expectations. Based on the gender schema theory, in this study we investigated the relationships among work adjustment, family support, and gender role of male flight attendants, and how to improve the work adjustment of the men working in these circumstances. We conducted a survey with 221 male flight attendants employed by the leading airline in Taiwan and found that both gender role and family support had a significant effect on work adjustment. In particular, male flight attendants who had feminine or androgynous gender roles had lower levels of work adjustment and required more family support, whereas flight attendants who had masculine gender roles had higher levels of work adjustment and tended to seek less support from their family. Our findings suggest that both type of gender role and family background influence men's adjustment to working in a female-dominated work environment.

Identifying latent profiles in the zone of acceptable alternatives amongst female high school students: With a focus on career status and feminine gender roles

Identifying latent profiles in the zone of acceptable alternatives amongst female high school students: With a focus on career status and feminine gender roles

Identifying latent profiles in the zone of acceptable alternatives amongst female high school students: With a focus on career status and feminine gender roles

Identifying latent profiles in the zone of acceptable alternatives amongst female high school students: With a focus on career status and feminine gender roles

Gender roles, sociosexuality, and sexual behavior among US Black women

This study examined the relationship between gender roles and sociosexuality (an individual difference variable describing attitudes about sexual permissiveness and promiscuity), and their predictive pattern of HIV-related sexual risk behaviors. A geographically diverse sample of 275 adult, heterosexual Black women (mean age = 33.60 years), participated in a self-administered survey. Significant relationships were found between feminine traits and sociosexuality, and between sociosexuality and four of the five risky sexual behavior variables. Neither masculine nor feminine gender roles were related to any risky sexual behavior variables. Sociosexuality emerged as an important correlate that requires further exploration of its relationship to the attitudes and behaviors of Black women, and its potential relationship to HIV risk-related sexual behavior. The need for more attention to psychosocial variables, and consideration of context, cultural norms, and values is discussed as an important undertaking in order to garner an accurate picture of sexual risk behavior.

Gender roles and acculturation: Relationships with cancer screening among Vietnamese American women.

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of demographic variables and the interplay between gender roles and acculturation on breast and cervical cancer screening outcomes among Vietnamese American women. Convenience sampling was used to recruit 100 Vietnamese women from the Richmond, VA, metropolitan area. Women were recruited to participate in a larger cancer screening intervention. All participants completed measures on demographic variables, gender roles, acculturation, and cancer screening variables. Findings indicated that traditional masculine gender roles were associated with increased self-efficacy for breast and cervical cancer screening. Higher levels of acculturation were associated with higher probability of having had a Papanicolaou test. In addition, acculturation moderated the relationship between traditional female gender roles and cancer screening variables. For highly acculturated women, higher levels of feminine gender roles predicted higher probability of having had a previous clinical breast exam and higher levels of self-efficacy for cervical cancer screening, while the opposite was true for lower acculturated women. The findings of this study indicate the important roles that sociodemographic variables, gender roles, and acculturation play in affecting health attitudes and behaviors among Vietnamese women. These findings also help to identify a potentially high-risk subgroup and existing gaps that need to be targeted by preventive interventions.

From West Africa to the Balkans: exploring women’s roles in transnational organized crime

There is a lack of reliable data on the role of women in transnational organized crime. So far, the focus of this research has overwhelmingly been on the Italian Mafia. Little is known about women’s roles in other types of organized crime activities. Since there is an ongoing perception that draws on stereotypical imagery of women in organized crime as appendixes to their male counterparts, this article explores whether women are indeed as oppressed in transnational organized crime as they are in other spheres of life. It focuses on the stereotypical constructions of femininity (victims) and masculinity (criminals) and argues that hegemonic gender roles are defined by the dominant European/American culture. The article takes a multicultural feminist approach and studies female criminality in the context of “doing gender,” an approach that assumes that the feminine gender role is something that must be accomplished in the context of specific situations. By studying the roles of women from West Africa and the Balkans in transnational criminal activities, it specifically examines how time and space, as well history and culture, contribute to one’s position in a criminal network.

Gender roles and organizational citizenship behaviors: effects on managerial evaluations

Purpose– Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are defined as non-required workplace behaviors that have potential positive organizational impact. This study examined gender roles and differences in employee evaluations based on OCB participation. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approach– College students (n=160) rated male and female managers, who did or did not participate in OCBs, on the evaluation of behaviors and possessed gendered traits (agentic and communal). Additionally, participants rated the gendered nature of OCBs.Findings– OCB participation had a direct effect on managerial ratings and OCBs were perceived to be more feminine than masculine. Gender did not predict differences in ratings; however, women were seen as more likely to participate in OCBs compared to men. Additionally, the gender roles associated with OCBs were measured and OCBs were perceived to be mostly feminine in nature.Research limitations/implications– The results indicated the importance of OCBs in managerial ratings and established that OCB behaviors are more aligned with stereotypes of women than men. Gendered expectations regarding OCB behaviors may further bias subjective workplace evaluations.Originality/value– This is the first study to establish the perception that OCBs as commonly categorized in research studies are perceived to be associated with feminine behaviors. OCBs had a strong effect on evaluations of managers and OCBs are more associated with feminine gender roles.

On the motivation of quid pro quo sexual harassment in men: relation to masculine gender role stress

AbstractMale office workers reported levels of distress elicited by personal violations of a range of masculine gender role expectations, as well as their proclivities to coerce sexual favors from “attractive” subordinate women via bribery or extortion. Sexual harassment proclivity levels were directly correlated with levels of distress related to four dimensions of masculine gender role violations, including acts of subordination to women, public expression of emotional behavior, inadequate heterosexual prowess, and inferiority in athletic and intellectual domains. These findings accord with an interpretation that men's quid pro quo sexual harassment may be motivated by the social punishment of their own failures to conform to masculine gender role expectations, including, but importantly, not limited to the expectation that men should punish women's violations of feminine gender role norms.

Sadness and anger: Boys, girls, and crying in adolescence.

Men cry less frequently and intensely than women, and this sex difference is especially marked for crying in response to anger. We investigated the predictors of crying from sadness and anger in British adolescents and the extent to which they were moderated by gender. We asked participants how often they cried when experiencing each emotion and examined their reports in relation to five potential correlates, including the frequency and strength of the precipitating emotion. Both sexes reported that they were more likely to cry in response to sadness than anger, but, as expected, boys reported crying less than girls from both emotions. The correlates of crying when sad were similar in boys and girls: In addition to the effect of gender (female), other significant predictors were frequency and intensity of feeling sad, feminine gender role, depression, and by greater reported crying when sad. Crying from anger was predicted by gender and greater reported crying when sad. In girls, but not boys, anger intensity was a significant predictor. In boys, depression was a stronger predictor than it was in girls. We highlight the need for further research on emotional expression in boys and men, especially using qualitative techniques that can shed light on the parameters of “acceptable” crying and the extent to which depression may disrupt or subvert these display rules. We recommend that future studies focus on emotion-specific crying and employ measures of the frequency and intensity of precipitating emotions that were examined, for the first time, in this study.

Gender Role Expectations of Disgust: Men are Low and Women are High

Little is known about the gender-based stereotypes of the emotion of disgust. We hypothesized that when addressing core (gross-out) disgust specifically, men would be perceived as lower in disgust matching masculine roles and women would be perceived as higher in disgust consonant with feminine gender roles. In Study 1, we modified and validated the Gender Role Expectations of Pain graphical scale (GREP, Robinson et al. 2001) to address disgust and gave it and a disgust sensitivity scale to 136 (48 men) undergraduates from the northeastern United States. Rating disgust sensitivity of themselves and stereotypical men and women, both genders rated men low in disgust sensitivity compared to a typical woman and women high in disgust compared to a typical man. A significant trend for men higher in masculinity to be less willing to show their disgust was also seen. This exact pattern of significant results was found in an additional sample of 134 students (37 men) from the northeastern U.S. on an online version of the GREP. Study 2 examined gender role expectations for comparison emotions of anger and amusement in a different set of undergraduates from the northeastern U.S. Anger showed a trend toward an opposite pattern of ratings than for disgust; no gender biases were expected or seen for amusement, a control emotion. Thus, the stereotypical profile of high disgust reported for women did not merely reflect general overarching gender-based stereotypes of emotion, but gender-based expectations specific to core (gross-out) disgust. We suggest awareness of gender role expectations of disgust may play a role in observed gender differences reported for disgust.

Masculinity and femininity in the divergence of male body image concerns.

BackgroundGiven recent assertions suggesting that gender role endorsement may be relevant in the divergence of male body image concerns, this study examined the self-reported gender role endorsement in opposing dimensional extremes of male body image disorders, namely, muscle dysmorphia and anorexia nervosa. This study further examined the relationship between gender role endorsement and eating disordered and muscle dysmorphia disorder pathology.MethodologyParticipants were 21 male muscle dysmorphia patients, 24 male anorexia nervosa patients, and 30 male gym-using controls from Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. All participants completed multidimensional measures of masculinity and femininity, and measures of eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology.ResultsPatients with muscle dysmorphia reported significantly elevated adherence to masculine (but not feminine) norms relative to control gym-using men and men with anorexia nervosa, whereas patients with anorexia nervosa exhibited elevated feminine (but not masculine) gender role endorsement relative to control gym-using men and men with muscle dysmorphia.ConclusionsMasculine and feminine gender role endorsement appear to be associated with the divergence of body image concerns towards muscularity and thinness-oriented ideals respectively.