Female Water Polo Players Research Articles

Вибір ігрового амплуа центральних захисників на підставі аналізу структури спеціальної підготовленості кваліфікованих ватерполісток

Olga Pilipko & Alina Pilipko Purpose: to develop and experimentally substantiate the method of choosing the game role of the central defenders on the basis of the analysis of the indicators of the structure of the special preparedness of qualified female water polo players. Material & Methods: analysis and generalization of literary sources, pedagogical observation, anthropometric and physiological measurements, testing, analysis of the game activities of water polo players using test game protocols, methods of mathematical statistics. The contingent of the surveyed were members of the team of the Kharkiv region on the female water floor. Results: the authors determined the features of the structure of special preparedness of qualified female water polo players who perform functions as central defenders, investigated the relationship between physical development indicators, technical and special swimming training of representatives of this role, developed model characteristics of the most significant parameters of the structure of special preparedness of qualified female water polo players to determine the playing role of the central defenders. Conclusion: the definition of playing roles in women's water polo should be based on a comprehensive analysis of indicators that reflect all aspects of preparedness of qualified female athletes.

Isokinetic torque imbalances of shoulder of the french women's national water polo team

Summary Objective Evaluate the shoulder isokinetic strength of high-level female water polo players. Methods Two groups were compared: a control group of noncompetitive females (n = 10), and members of the French women's national water polo (n = 18). Isokinetic measurements focused on the shoulder internal rotators (IR) and external rotators (ER), the evaluations were realized at 60°·s−1 and 240°·s−1 in the concentric mode and at 60°·s−1 in the eccentric mode. Agonist–antagonist ratios (ER/IR) were calculated using the same speed and contraction mode for the agonist and antagonist muscle groups and the mixed ratio, combining peak torque (PT; N·m) of the ER in the eccentric mode at 60°·s−1 and PT of the IR in the concentric mode at 240°·s−1, was calculated. Results In concentric contraction, the PT of IR of the polo players was stronger than controls (P Conclusion Intensive engagement in playing water polo will lead to an asymmetry in terms of force, with a dominance of the internal rotors of the dominant shoulder.

Epidemiology of shoulder injury in sub-elite level water polo players

ObjectiveInvestigate the patterns and circumstances of shoulder injury, in both male and female sub-elite water polo players, through evaluating the injury incidence, mechanism and subsequent training time lost. Design:Retrospective cohort. SettingSports institute. Participants80 sub-elite water polo players. Main outcome measuresTotal injury number and incidence, mechanism of injury, lost training time and time from injury onset to seeking treatment. ResultsFor the athlete self-report data set (2009–2013), 218 total injuries were reported with 54 (25%) being shoulder injuries. From 2014 to 2016, 133 physiotherapist-report injuries were recorded, the shoulder accounting for 21 (16%) of total injuries. The shoulder was the most frequently injured site and accounted for 25% of lost training days. Two thirds of shoulder injuries were due to overuse (67%). The average time between sustaining a shoulder injury and presenting to the team physiotherapist was 10 days. Conclusion: Irrespective of data collection method, shoulder injuries were the most common injury for both male and female sub-elite water polo players. Future injury prevention strategies could address overuse through optimising throwing volumes, and include athlete education about injury management to determine whether reducing time delay between injury occurrence and seeking treatment improves outcomes.

Оптимизация процесса соревновательной деятельности спортсменок, специализирующихся в водном поло

Objective. Integrated assessment of specialized preparedness of skilled female water polo athletes aimed at the substantiation and development of practical recommendations on the effective use of water polo tactical schemes in the competitive period taking into account the functional capabilities of the body. Methods. An analysis of scientific and methodological literature; a questionnaire survey; physiological methods; psychophysiological methods; pedagogical testing; assessment of competitive performance; methods of mathematical statistics. Results. Competitive performance assessment of female water polo players was carried out on the basis of the data of their performance during water polo matches and with the use of their parameters of technical and tactical skills during the matches. The result of assessment was compared to the model characteristics that made it possible to determine the correspondence of displayed level of specialized preparedness of the water polo player to her sports qualification. The specialized preparedness of the athletes was examined comprehensively on the basis of relationships among the psychophysiological condition, speed abilities, and throwing efficacy, and taking into account the menstrual phase. The variants of application of technical-tactical schemes in water polo that take into account the team roles were developed and proposed to maximize and improve the realization of individual mastery by athletes that helped to optimize the competitive activity of the team in whole. This was confirmed by the growing performance of Ukrainian junior and women's national water polo teams. Conclusions. Recommendations on designing competitive tactics of the team and determining individual actions of water polo players were introduced into the practice of competitions of the leading club teams of Ukraine, as well as of Ukrainian women's and junior national teams. Keywords: competitive activity, water polo, female athletes, specialized preparedness, tactics.

Relationships Between Isokinetic Shoulder Evaluation and Fitness Characteristics of Elite French Female Water-Polo Players.

Swimming and throwing are involved in water-polo player performance. These movements have a common biomechanical basis in the use of the internal shoulder rotation and adductor muscles. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between shoulder isokinetic evaluation and throwing velocity as well as swimming performance in female water-polo players. Fifteen high level water-polo players completed two isokinetic shoulder evaluations to determine peak torque of shoulder rotators of the dominant shoulder (concentric and eccentric movements at an angular velocity of 60°·s-1 and concentric movements at an angular velocity of 240°·s-1) and shoulder extensors of both arms (concentric movements at an angular velocity of 60°·s-1 and 240°·s-1). Throwing velocity was measured using a radar gun placed 5 m behind the goal post. Front crawl swimming velocity was determined at 25 m, 100 m and 400 m distances. Concentric peak torque at 60°·s-1 and 240°·s-1 of internal rotators and eccentric peak torque at 60°·s-1 of external rotators were predictors of throwing velocity. The best model to explain the relationship between isokinetic evaluations and throwing velocity was obtained with concentric IR peak torque at 60°·s-1 and eccentric ER peak torque at 60°·s-1 (r2 = 0.52, p = 0.012). Relative total work done and peak torque of shoulder extensors were predictors of 25 m swimming velocity. Shoulder isokinetic evaluations correlate significantly with swimming performance and throwing velocity of female water-polo players. The results may help coaches to develop new strategies such as eccentric dry land training programs to increase both shoulder external rotators strength and throwing velocity.

Relative age effect and left-handedness in world class water polo male and female players

ABSTRACTMost studies of the relative age effect (RAE) refer to popular sports. In contrast, we examined to what extent the RAE is present in elite water polo players, as well as the association between handedness and RAE. For these purposes, laterality, anthropometry, month of birth, performance and playing position of participants in the 2011, 2013 and 2015 World Championships (623 women, 622 men) were analised. No RAE was observed in the total sample. However, the proportion of male left-handed field players born in the first quarter (11%) was lower than those born in the second (35.3%) and fourth quarter (29.4%). Regarding the overall laterality, the amount of left handed players was similar to the general population (10%). Nevertheless, there was a larger amount of left-handed wings than expected both in men (23.7%) and women (34.4%). Left-handed male players performed more shots, shots/minute and also scored more goals than right-handed players. Women left-handed players were younger and they performed more shots/minute. There is no RAE in elite male and female water polo players. However, laterality could be a possible moderator of the RAE particularly in left handed players, which should be taken into account in future studies.

The Effect of Beetroot Juice Supplementation on Dynamic Apnea and Intermittent Sprint Performance in Elite Female Water Polo Players.

Nitrate-rich beetroot juice is thought to have ergogenic effects, particularly in conditions where oxygen availability is limited. Whether these effects also apply to elite athletes is currently unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of beetroot juice supplementation on dynamic apnea and intermittent sprint performance in elite female water polo players. In a double-blinded, randomized, crossover manner, the Dutch National female water polo team (N = 14) was subjected to two 6-day supplementation periods (1 and 2), with either 140ml/day of nitrate-rich (BR; ∼800mg/day nitrate) or nitrate-depleted (PLA) beetroot juice. Following blood sampling on Day 6, the athletes performed a maximal-distance front crawl swimming test without breathing (dynamic apnea test). In addition, intermittent sprint performance was assessed by performing 16 swim sprints of 15m, in a 4 × 4 block with 30-s recovery between blocks (intermittent test). Distance covered during the dynamic apnea test did not differ between BR (49.5 ± 7.8m) and PLA (46.9 ± 9.1m, p = .178). However, when correcting for test order, the distance covered was significantly larger in BR versus PLA when BR was ingested in Period 2 (50.1 ± 8.5 vs. 42.8 ± 5.7m, p = .002), whereas no difference was observed when BR was ingested in Period 1 (48.8 ± 7.4 vs. 52.3 ± 10.4m, p = .10). The time to complete the intermittent test was not different between BR and PLA (316.0 ± 7.9 vs. 316.3 ± 6.9s, p = .73). In conclusion, beetroot juice supplementation does not improve intermittent performance in elite female water polo players, but there may be a potential for ergogenic effects during dynamic apnea.

Predicting playing status in professional water polo players: analysis by gender.

The aim of this study was twofold: firstly, to identify the characteristics of water polo players that discriminate between women and men based on specific playing positions; and secondly to develop a predicting model to identify the characteristics that are best suited to a given playing position based on gender. The study included 130 professional water polo players. Anthropometric characteristics and throwing velocity were analyzed in different situations: no defender or goalkeeper, goalkeeper only and the players made three rapid arm movements and then threw the ball at maximum speed without further feinting with goalkeeper. Measured variables were compared according to gender and player position using discriminant analysis. The predictive model accurately classifies 71.1% of the male players using three variables (arm span, muscle mass Lee and penalty without goalkeeper), and 64.7% of the female players using three variables (triceps skinfold, biceps skinfold and anteroposterior chest breadth). The anthropometric characteristics and throwing velocity play an important role in identifying the different specific positions in male and female water polo players. In female players, the variables that were determinant in the predictive model, were those associated with body composition.

Posture and isokinetic shoulder strength in female water polo players

Background: Being overhead athletes, water polo players can present with muscular imbalances of the shoulder, between the internal rotators (IR) and external rotators (ER), leading to changes in posture and an increased risk of injury.Objectives: To assess posture and isokinetic shoulder strength of female club-level water polo players.Methods: A descriptive study assessing posture and isokinetic strength of the IR and ER shoulder muscles in 15 female club-level South African water polo players (age: 21.3 ± 1.5 years) was conducted. Posture was assessed using a posture grid. Isokinetic shoulder rotator muscle strength was tested over five repetitions concentrically and eccentrically at 60°/sec using a Biodex system 3 isokinetic dynamometer. The bilateral, reciprocal and functional dynamic control ratios (DCR) were calculated.Results: Typical postures noted were a forward head, rounded shoulders, increased thoracic spine kyphosis, elevated non-dominant shoulder and mild scapula winging. The mean concentric reciprocal ratios for the dominant (52.2 ± 7%) and non-dominant (51.9 ± 6.4%) sides indicated ER muscle weakness. DCR values were within normal limits for the group. (D: 0.75 ± 0.2 and ND: 0.75 ± 0.1).Conclusion: There is a trend for these female water polo players to have rounded shoulders and forward head postures, as well as ER muscle strength weakness, the combination of which could predispose the athletes to shoulder injury.

Determination of level of competition activity of female water polo players of high class

Determination of level of competition activity of female water polo players of high class

Posture and isokinetic shoulder strength in female water polo players

Background: Being overhead athletes, water polo players can present with muscular imbalances of the shoulder, between the internal rotators (IR) and external rotators (ER), leading to changes in posture and an increased risk of injury. Objectives: To assess posture and isokinetic shoulder strength of female club-level water polo players. Methods: A descriptive study assessing posture and isokinetic strength of the IR and ER shoulder muscles in 15 female club-level South African water polo players (age: 21.3 ± 1.5 years) was conducted. Posture was assessed using a posture grid. Isokinetic shoulder rotator muscle strength was tested over five repetitions concentrically and eccentrically at 60°/sec using a Biodex system 3 isokinetic dynamometer. The bilateral, reciprocal and functional dynamic control ratios (DCR) were calculated. Results: Typical postures noted were a forward head, rounded shoulders, increased thoracic spine kyphosis, elevated non-dominant shoulder and mild scapula winging. The mean concentric reciprocal ratios for the dominant (52.2 ± 7%) and non-dominant (51.9 ± 6.4%) sides indicated ER muscle weakness. DCR values were within normal limits for the group. (D: 0.75 ± 0.2 and ND: 0.75 ± 0.1). Conclusion: There is a trend for these female water polo players to have rounded shoulders and forward head postures, as well as ER muscle strength weakness, the combination of which could predispose the athletes to shoulder injury.

Position-specific anthropometry and throwing velocity of elite female water polo players.

This study was conducted with the following aims: (a) to describe the effect of playing position on anthropometrics and throwing velocity in elite female water polo players and (b) to observe any relationships between anthropometric parameters and throwing velocity. To achieve these aims, we analyzed a total of 46 female elite players (age: 22.5 ± 5.1 years; height: 172.0 ± 6.9 cm, body mass: 67.4 ± 7.5 kg) members of the top 4 teams of the Spanish Honour Division women league (21 offensive wings players, 17 center, and 8 goalkeepers). Wings were significantly shorter and had smaller arm spans than goalkeepers and center players. Goalkeepers demonstrated longer forearm lengths than wing and center players. No other significant differences were evident between positions in terms of anthropometric, strength, or throwing velocity variables The somatotype of the offensive wing players was mesomorphic, whereas centers were endomorph (classified as endomesomorphic). Height, arm span, muscular mass, biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, arm girth (relaxed and tensed), and forearm girth were related to throwing velocity. In conclusion, only a small number of anthropometric differences exist between players of different positions in elite female water polo. Shorter players with smaller arm spans may be better suited to the wings, whereas athletes with longer forearms may be better suited to the goalkeeper position. Taller, more muscular athletes with wider arm spans, broader humeri, and wider arms (relaxed and flexed) tended to throw with increased velocity. Trainers should focus on increasing the modifiable characteristics (muscle mass and arm girths) that contribute to throwing velocity in this population.

Throwing performance and test-retest reliability in Olympic female water polo players.

Shooting performance is critical to successful water polo performance, requiring high levels of speed and accuracy. However, shooting speed and accuracy performance of elite female water polo players has not been described in detail nor has the reliability of accuracy measures been reported. Consequently, the aim of this study was to describe shooting performance in elite female water polo players and compare the test-retest reliability of the currently available accuracy measures. Ten Olympic female water polo players were tested on 3 occasions before Olympic competition for maximal throwing speed and accuracy (total error and hit percentage) toward various target locations, with and without a goalkeeper (GK) present. The current participants (all Olympic athletes) achieved higher speeds (16.8 m·s-1), higher hit percentages (45.3%) of a 20-cm sniper net target, and lower errors (20.7 cm) than any other female water polo players investigated previously. Performance was similar across the different target locations; however, both speed (15.2 vs. 14.8 m·s-1; p ≤ 0.05) and accuracy (50.2 vs. 37.7%; p ≤ 0.05) were reduced in the presence of a GK. Speed and total error was similar across the 3 testing sessions; however, hit percentage was statistically significantly higher in the final session (58.8% vs. 40.4 and 36.4%). Maximal throwing speed showed high levels of test-retest reliability (0.96). Total error (intraclass correlation [ICC] = 0.79) had slightly greater reliability than hit percentage (ICC = 0.73) overall. Hit percentage (ICC = 0.82) showed slightly greater reliability than total error (ICC = 0.72) without a GK present, whereas total error (ICC = 0.79) showed much greater reliability than hit percentage (ICC = 0.34) when a GK was present. This study benchmarks the high degree of throwing speed and accuracy required at the Olympic level in female water polo players. Although resource intensive, total error is a reliable measure of accuracy that allows for the nature of error to be described in detail, providing a great level of insight into performance. Hit percentage, while easier to obtain, should only be used when a GK is not present and in situations where describing the nature of error does not add value to coaching practices.

Changes in mood states and salivary cortisol levels following two months of training in elite female water polo players

Psychological and physiological markers have been used to maximize competitive sport preparation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two months of training and competitions on mood states and salivary cortisol diurnal variation in 15 female elite water polo players. The results demonstrated that the β coefficient values of the regression slope of cortisol values on sampling time was significantly flatter following the training period. The values of the area under the cortisol curve (AUC) 'with respect to ground' (AUCg) and those of the β coefficients of the slope of the diurnal change in cortisol levels were highly negatively correlated. The slope correlated positively with the dysfunctional Profile of Mood States scale and negatively with the functional scale. AUCg correlated negatively with dysfunctional factors and positively with the vigor index. These findings support the hypothesis that subclinical hypocortisolism and a flattened diurnal rhythm of cortisol may play a role in determining dysfunctional mood states.

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and mood states in elite female water polo players

Objective The relative length of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) has been proposed as a marker of the prenatal androgen effects, with a relatively longer fourth finger indicating higher prenatal androgen exposure. Low 2D:4D has been reported to correlate with high performance and mood states in sport in general. On the psychological side, tests able to measure specific psychological features and mood states have been used. Here, we examined the relationship between 2D:4D and mood states in elite female water polo players.

Oxidative stress, inflammation and angiogenesis markers in elite female water polo athletes throughout a season

Elite athletes undergo heavy training programs throughout the year. The aim of the present study was to evaluate blood biomarkers of redox status, oxidative stress, inflammation and angiogenesis over the course of a competitive season in elite female water polo players. The biomarkers were evaluated in four distinct phases of an athletic season. It was found that the reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration was significantly increased, whereas catalase activity was decreased in erythrocytes in phases 3 and 4 compared to phase 2. Plasma concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was increased in phases 3 and 4 compared to phases 1 and 2, the concentration of protein carbonyls was increased in phase 4, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was decreased in phases 2 and 3. Plasma monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was decreased in phases 3 and 4; interleukin-10 (IL-10) was increased in phase 4, whereas no change was observed for adiponectin and endoglin. The findings of this study indicate that oxidative stress and inflammation varies over the season in elite female water polo athletes and this information might be used to apply remedies for optimizing athletic performance and accelerating training recovery.

Redox status of elite female water polo players

Redox status of elite female water polo players

The volume of goal shooting during training can predict shoulder soreness in elite female water polo players

ObjectivesExamine the association between measures shoulder soreness and the goal shooting volume in high performance women's water polo. DesignSeven national level female water polo players were monitored across two training camps (squad selection and team game-based). MethodsPerformance analysis coded all shots for each athlete during the training camps and the shoulder soreness information was gathered through an athlete self-rating survey. Residual maximal likelihood analysis was used to predict shoulder soreness. ResultsIt was shown that 74% (p=0.013) of shoulder soreness was explained by the volume of goal shooting during training (R2 0.743) with greater soreness associated with less rest time between shots (p=0.032). Greater levels of shoulder soreness were reported in the squad selection training camp compared to team game-based camp (p=0.002) with 29% of this shoulder soreness prediction based on individual athlete differences. ConclusionsShoulder soreness increased with a greater number of shots in conjunction with less rest. Monitoring athletes on an individual basis seemed the most appropriate method of identifying increased shoulder soreness.

Mechanical loading with or without weight-bearing activity: influence on bone strength index in elite female adolescent athletes engaged in water polo, gymnastics, and track-and-field

Bone health is considered not to benefit from water-based sports because of their weight-supported nature, but available evidence primarily relies on DXA technology. Our purpose was to investigate musculoskeletal health in the upper and lower body in well-trained adolescent female athletes using pQCT and compare these athletes with less-active, age- and sex-matched peers. Bone mineral content, volumetric cortical and trabecular BMD, total and cortical area, and bone strength index were assessed at the distal and proximal tibia and radius in four groups of adolescent females (mean age, 14.9years) including water polo players (n=30), gymnasts (n=25), track-and-field athletes (n=34), and nonactive controls (n=28). Water polo players did not show any benefit in bone strength index or muscle size in the lower leg when compared with controls. In contrast, gymnasts showed 60.1% and 53.4% greater bone strength index at the distal and proximal tibia, respectively, than nonactive females (p<0.05). Similarly, track-and-field athletes displayed 33.9% and 14.7% greater bone strength index at the distal and proximal tibia, respectively, compared with controls (p<0.05). In the upper body, water polo players had 31.9% greater bone strength index at the distal radius, but not the radial shaft, and 15.2% larger forearm muscle cross-sectional area than controls (p<0.05). The greatest musculoskeletal benefits in the upper body were found in gymnasts. In conclusion, despite training at an elite level, female water polo players did not show any benefits in musculoskeletal health in the lower leg and only limited benefits in the upper body when compared with nonactive girls.

Analysis and Dispersion of QT, JT and Tpeak-Tend Intervals in Elite Female Water Polo Players

Background The physiology of water polo has been difficult to study d ue to the characteristics of the game in the field of play. Little is known about cardiac electrophysiology in these athletes, particularly in women. The electrocardiographic findings in elite water polo athletes have been rarely studied. Objectives To analyze the ventricular repolarization in female water polo players from the Cuba’s National Preliminary Squad. M aterial and Methods W e conducted a cross-sectional study in a sample of two groups of women, one with 20 athletes and another with 20 healthy non-athletes. The electrocardiographic parameters of ventricular repolarization were compared in both groups. Results Mean age was 22.45±5.30 years vs. 22.45±5.30 years; p >0.05. Weight was greater in athletes compared to non-athletes (69.63±7.73 kg vs. 51.20±6.63 kg; p <0.001 ). Mean duration of sporting practice was 13.5 years. There were no significant differences in QTc and JTc intervals in lead DII between both groups, yet the intervals measured in lead V5 were longer in athletes (QTc: 405 ms vs. 424 ms; p <0.05 - JTc: 307 ms vs. 329 ms; p <0.05 ). QT interval dispersion was greater in athletes compared to non-athletes (74 ms vs. 43 ms; p <0.001). Tpeak-Tend interval was greater in athletes in leads V1 (64 ms vs. 81 ms; p <0.05), V3 (78 ms vs. 92 ms; p< 0.05), V4 (72 ms vs. 83 ms; p <0.05) and V5 (63 ms vs. 80 ms; p <0.05). Conclusions QTc and JTc intervals and QT interval dispersion were significantly greater in athletes. Tpeak-Tend interval was significantly greater in athletes in leads V1, V3, V4 and V5; Tpeak-Tend interval dispersion was greater, though not statistically significant in athletes.