Оптимизация процесса соревновательной деятельности спортсменок, специализирующихся в водном поло

Background: The variation in the body mass and height of players over time is called the secular trend. It has been analyzed in several team sports, but no similar studies have been conducted on female athletes playing water polo. The aim of this paper was to study the changes that have occurred in the body size and composition of female water polo athletes participating in the Olympic Games, from their first inclusion in the Olympics (2004) until today. Methods: Data were collected from the female water polo players of the National Team selected to participate in the Olympic Games from 2004 (Athens) until 2024 (Paris) and then analyzed. A total of 93 athletes were assessed, and we analyzed the data for each of the Olympics between 2004 and 2024. To evaluate the anthropometric characteristics of the athletes, their body mass and height were recorded and their Body Mass Index (BMI) was then calculated. The athletes’ Body Composition (BC) was assessed using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Results: The athletes’ average age decreases over time, while their body mass increases. Their body height does not vary significantly. The BMI confirmed that the athletes were always healthy and with a correct diet. With regard to BC, the Fat Free Mass (FFM) values exhibit an increasing trend. Conclusions: The water polo female athletes participating in the 2024 Olympic Games were younger and have different anthropometric and BC values than the athletes playing in the first women’s water polo tournament at the Olympics in 2004. The most likely explanation for this is the rapid evolution of the young female version of the sport, with improved recruitment and training strategies and greater attention paid to nutrition.

At the present stage of sports development the intensity and volume of training sessions have increased to physiological maximum, requirements for technical and tactical training of highly qualified players and the duration of their stay in the sports arena have increased, so coaches, scientists and doctors are looking for reserves to improve performance. In recent years, differentiated approaches to the training of athletes at different stages of long-term training, taking into account the psychophysiological characteristics of athletes, have been successfully implemented in various sports. Given these trends, there is an urgent question of approach to technical and tactical training of water polo players, taking into account their psychophysiological characteristics. The purpose of the study was to determine the role of individual psychophysiological characteristics in the system of training athletes in water polo. Materials and methods. In the course of the research, we used the methods of theoretical analysis and generalization of literary sources, documentary method. In order to conduct a survey of water polo coaches, we conducted a survey. In order to analyze and process the results of the questionnaire, we used the methods of mathematical statistics. Results and discussion. To conduct a survey of water polo coaches, we developed a questionnaire that included questions about the specifics of water polo training, identifying the most talented water polo players in the early stages of long-term training and psychophysiological characteristics in the water polo training system. In the course of the research, we conducted a survey of water polo coaches on the peculiarities of taking into account the individual psychophysiological characteristics of athletes in the system of training in water polo. As a result of the survey, it was determined that psychophysiological characteristics are an important component of the system of training athletes in water polo. The most significant psychophysiological characteristics for water polo players of different game roles are determined. Conclusion. The study found that all coaches we interviewed (100%) believe it is necessary to take into account the psychophysiological characteristics of athletes in the selection and construction of training athletes in water polo. Psychophysiological characteristics of athletes are one of the most informative criteria for gifted athletes in water polo in the early stages of long-term training, according to 43% of respondents, along with anthropometric data of athletes (14%) and motivation for water polo (29%). As a result of the survey, respondents noted the most effective psychophysiological characteristics for different game roles, in particular for goalkeepers it is the speed of simple and complex motor reactions, for defenders – the ability to anticipate. For midfielders it is speed of thinking and decision making and for attackers it is speed of motor reactions and speed of thinking

Water polo players benefit from greater odds of success when maintaining their tactical position against their opponents. This study evaluated the reliability and validity of a water-based resistance test to replicate this skill.Thirty-three water polo players participated in this study (19 males and 14 females, 14 from senior and 19 from junior national teams). Data were collected during two regular training sessions, separated by one week, using a load cell to instrument a weight stack resistance setup on the pool deck. Performance parameters such as mean force, maximum force, mean peak force and total impulse were defined with custom Python scripts. Test-retest reliability was assessed using intra-class correlations (ICC3,1). Group comparisons were explored between male and female players. Level of significance was set at p < 0.05. The reliability findings were high to very high for the mean force, maximum force, mean peak force, inter-stroke range, and total impulse (ICC 0.85-0.93, p < 0.01). Group comparisons showed significantly greater values in male players for these variables (p < 0.01, ES = 1.05-9.36) with large to very large effect sizes. However, there was no significant difference in endurance measured between sexes (p = 0.88, ES = 0.04). This study presents a methodology with satisfactory metrological qualities for field applications using simple and affordable equipment. The testing apparatus presented in this study can readily be replicated in a variety of training environments by practitioners working with water polo teams. Coaches can use this approach to evaluate individual player progress or to compare performance across a group of water polo players.

In the authors' earlier study the relative aerobic power of Hungarian top-level male water polo players was found to be smaller than that of other top-level athletes, while their echocardiographic parameters proved to be the most characteristic of the athlete's heart. In the present investigation echocardiographic and spiroergometric data of female top-level water polo players were compared to those of other female elite athletes and of healthy, non-athletic subjects. Relative aerobic power in the water polo players was lower than in endurance athletes. Mean resting heart rates were the slowest in the water polo players and endurance athletes. Morphologic indicators of the heart (body size related left ventricular wall thickness and muscle mass) were the highest in the water polo players, endurance and power athletes. In respect of diastolic functions (diastolic early and late peak transmitral flow velocities) no difference was seen between the respective groups.These results indicate that, similarly to the males, top-level water polo training is associated with the dimensional parameters of the heart rather than with relative aerobic power. For checking the physical condition of female water polo players spiroergometric tests seem to be less appropriate than swim-tests with heart rate recovery studies such as the ones used in the males.

The impact of chronic, intense exercise, such as in elite athletes, on phospholipids fatty acids (FA) composition has not been studied in women so far. This study aimed to investigate FA profiles in plasma and erythrocytes phospholipids in elite female water polo (N = 15) and football (N = 19) players in comparison with sedentary women. In spite of similar dietary patterns, as assessed by a food frequency questionnaire, plasma FA profile in the football players showed significantly higher proportions of stearic acid, oleic acid, and monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and significantly lower proportions of total and n-6 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) than in the water polo and control group. The water polo players had higher percentages of palmitoleic acid and arachidonic acid than the control subjects. Erythrocyte FA profile differed among groups. We found significantly higher proportion of oleic acid and MUFA in the football group than in the controls, and decreased stearic acid and elevated palmitic and palmitoleic acid in the water polo players than in the other 2 groups. Both groups of athletes had significantly lower percentages of n-6 dihomo-γ-linolenic acid, n-6 PUFA, and total PUFA compared with the controls. The estimated activities of elongase and desaturases in erythrocytes were also altered in the athletes. Our results indicate that long-term, intense physical training significantly affects FA status of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women. The observed differences between the water polo and the football players suggest that the type of regular training may contribute to the altered metabolism of FA, although possible genetic differences among the 3 study groups cannot be ruled out.

Introduction Selection in individual sports is conditioned by certain morphological characteristics. In basketball are selected individuals who tallest in his class (age group). Water polo is a sport that is characterised by high aerobic endurance. The differences in anthropomorphic parameters among young athletes could be influenced by the biological development itself or they could appear under the impact of the training stimulus that is characteristic for a certain type of sport. Aim The aim of this study was to show the differences in anthropomorphic parameters, absolute oxygen consumption (VO2) and relative oxygen consumption (VO2/kg) between senior national water polo and basketball selection. Methods The research includes 32 selected professional players, members of national team, divided in two groups: water polo (W)(n1 = 15, aged 26.62 ± 4.24 years), basketball (B)(n2 = 17, aged 23.84 ± 1.96 years). The research was conducted in the laboratory for functional diagnostic Serbian Institute of Sport and Sports Medicine. Subject underwent physical exam, maximal progressive ergospirometry test on a Treadmill T200 Cosmed (methods Breath by breath, Quark CPET, Cosmed Pulmonary Function Equipment (VO2max, VO2 max/kg)) was used in order to complete the examinations of the cardio - respiratory system. In total, 23 measurements were performed, per every single player, within the anthropomorphic examinations (Mateigka, Jackson/Pollock, Durnin/Womersley). Student’s T-test was used for comparison of measured parameters. Results The comparison of measured parameters between water polo and basketball players showed that the water polo players have the high statistically significant bigger BMI (W 27.15 ± 1.53 vs. B 25.03 ± 1.61kg/m2), chest circumference (W 112.07 ± 5.88 vs. B 104.41 ± 6.2 cm), forearm circumference (W 30.77 ± 0.98 vs. B 29.41 ± 1.34 cm)(p Conclusion This study confirms the hypothesis that long-term engagement in sports activity leads to some morphological changes in athletes. Basketball players have highly statistically significantly bigger absolute and relative oxygen consumption then water polo. Basketball players are highly statistically significantly taller, have a highly statistically bigger thigh skin fold, bone percentage (Mateigki) and have a statistically bigger triceps and abdominal skin fold, percentage of fat (Mateigki), while water polo players have highly statistically higher BMI, chest circumference, forearm circumference. A large number of studies which were carried out research on the effect of training on morphofunctional characteristics of young people confirms that reaction of cardiorespiratory system of young athletes during training depends on the type of sports, years of practice sports, body position during sports activities and the medium in which these activities are performed.

Bone mineral density (BMD) is a measure of bone health which reflects risk for osteoporosis. Different types of exercise induce divergent impact on the skeleton influencing accrual of BMD. Previous research reported that female collegiate athletes in aquatic sports had lower BMD than other athletes and controls. PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to conduct a modern comparison of BMD of athletes in weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing sports with normally active controls. METHODS: Height, weight, and calcium intake was assessed in collegiate females (20.0 ± 1.3 years); 39 runners, 9 swimmers, 16 water polo players, and 24 controls. BMD and bone free lean mass were measured via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at baseline and 5 months later. RESULTS: When controlling for calcium intake and lean mass, there were no statistical differences between groups in BMD at the anterior-posterior (AP) spine, lateral spine, trochanter, total hip, and whole body. At the femoral neck (FN), water polo players had greater BMD than swimmers (0.922 ± 0.030 vs. 0.790 ± 0.033 g/cm2, p = .005). Longitudinally, increases in BMD between visits occurred for swimmers at the AP spine (p = .028), lateral spine (p = .049), FN (p = .049), and trochanter (p = .018) and for controls at whole body (p = .008). CONCLUSION: Bone health in female aquatic athletes was similar to controls and runners, except at the FN where BMD of swimmers was less than water polo players. Some females may continue to accrue BMD in college years. Modern training methods among female college athletes may lead to similar bone health even in sports with different skeletal impact.

In the water polo sport, several techniques must be mastered, one of which is the passing technique. A water polo player must be able to throw, both at close range and long-distance. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of triceps overhead extension training with the pyramid system method on the increase in arm power and the results of long pass water polo. The research method that I use to test the hypothesis in this study is an experimental method. In this study, the population and sample used were all female athletes of water polo in West Java with 12 athletes because these athletes were still active and the majority had understood the basic techniques of passing and long pass movements. The form of training to increase arm power and the results of long pass water polo is given by weight training triceps overhead extension with the pyramid system method. The treatment was given in 16 meetings to 12 West Java female water polo athletes. The data analysis technique used was the t-test at the 95% significance level. Based on the results of data processing, the researcher concluded that the exercise treatment had a significant effect on increasing arm power and the results of the long pass water polo from the initial test data obtained with an average of 386.08 and the final test data of 421.33 for arm power. while for the long pass data, the average of the initial test was 17.21 and the final test was 18.01.

Water polo is a team sport characterized by a high-intensity, intermittent activity, where technical and tactical aspect are of a great importance. For that reason, the main aim of this study was to define the anthropometrical characteristics, maximum isometric grip strength, training and competition throwing velocities, and the efficacy indices in female high-level water polo players. A second purpose was to examine the differences between the throwing velocities in training vs. European championships in the water polo female national team. Ten elite trained female water polo players participated in this study. Before the competitive phase of their season, the following measures were taken: standard anthropometry, static and dynamic training throwing velocities, and hand-grip dynamometry. In the competitive phase, efficacy indices, average and maximum throwing velocities from all the participants were also determined. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found between different training situations and different competitive throwing velocities. We concluded that elite female water polo players modify their throwing velocity depending if the throw is performed during training or competitive situation.

Two commonly used constructs in sport psychology researches are aggression and sportsmanship. In the present research, we attempted to assess the correlations between these two phenomena among male water polo players. The main objective was to explore the differences in aggression in the sport-specific positions of water polo in different aspects - physique, age, etc. - considered. Furthermore, the research sought to demonstrate the inverse relationship between aggression and sportsmanship in a water polo sample. To access these constructs in our research besides the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire and the Sportsmanship Attitude Scale a self-formulated water polo specific questionnaire was used, which intended to measure the aggression in the water during water polo matches. From the results, it can be seen that, according to our sample, both the trait aggression of the players and the role determined by their positions in the game play a decisive role when it comes to the aggression of an athlete. Moreover, the results obtained for water polo players also proved that sportsmanship and aggression are two contradictory constructs.

To characterize and compare the sport-specific cardiac structure of elite swimmers (SW), water polo players (WP), and artistic swimmers (AS). A cross-sectional assessment of elite aquatic athletes' hearts. The athletes' village at the 2019 FINA World Championships. Ninety athletes from swimming (SW) (20 M/17 F), water polo (WP) (21 M/9 F), and artistic swimming (AS) (23 F). An echocardiographic assessment of cardiac structure was performed on noncompetition days. Male SW displayed primarily eccentric volume-driven remodeling, whereas male WP had a greater incidence of pressure-driven concentric geometry (SW = 5%, WP = 25%) with elevated relative wall-thickness (RWT) (SW = 0.35 ± 0.04, WP = 0.44 ± 0.08, P < 0.001). Female SW and WP hearts were similar with primarily eccentric-remodeling, but SW and WP had greater concentricity index than artistic swimmers (SW = 6.74 ± 1.45 g/(mL)2/3, WP = 6.80 ± 1.24 g/(mL)2/3, AS = 5.52 ± 1.08 g/(mL)2/3, P = 0.007). AS had normal geometry, but with increased posterior-wall specific RWT (SW = 0.32 ± 0.05, AS = 0.42 ± 0.11, P = 0.004) and greater left atrial area than SW (SW = 9.7 ± 0.9 cm2/m2, AS = 11.0 ± 1.1 cm2/m2, P = 0.003). All females had greater incidence of left ventricular (LV) posterior/septal wall-thickness ≥11 mm than typically reported (SW = 24%, WP = 11%, AS = 17%). Male athletes presented classic sport-specific differentiation, with SW demonstrating primarily volume-driven eccentric remodelling, and WP with greater concentric geometry indicative of pressure-driven remodeling. Female SW and WP did not display this divergence, likely because of sex-differences in adaptation. AS had unique LV-specific adaptations suggesting elevated pressure under low-volume conditions. The overall incidence of elevated wall-thickness in female athletes may point to an aquatic specific pressure-stress.

IntroductionWater polo is a competitive team sport played in the water between two teams of seven players each. Water polo players must have swimming speed, strong abdominal and back muscles, and strong shoulder muscles to cope with this sport's special conditions. In this study, we investigate the possible association of shoulder and trunk muscle systems in adolescent water polo athletes of high demands.Materials and methodsThe research included 42 water polo players aged 14-16, who train regularly for at least five years, six times a week, and participate in national championships and national teams. The athletes were evaluated on the strength and torque of these muscular systems using the isokinetic dynamometer Biodex System 4 Pro (Biodex Medical Systems, Inc, Shirley, NY). The correlation of the results was done using the statistical package SPSS 21.ResultsThe correlations revealed statistically significant differences in trunk extension in combination with the shoulder external/internal rotation ratio. Also, most of the correlations occurred between the trunk and non-dominant limb of the athletes and, more often, in the female athletes. Furthermore, for the hand grip, the male athletes showed a greater difference in strength between the dominant and the non-dominant member than female athletes. Finally, the evaluation of the trunk extension/flexion ratio and external/internal rotation ratio for the shoulder joint showed that many athletes are outside the normal range and need targeted strengthening.ConclusionThe negative correlation coefficient between trunk extension/flexion and shoulder external/internal rotation indicates that the trunk extension mechanism helps for better internal rotation of the shoulder. Therefore, water polo players should focus on the training of the stretching mechanism of the trunk and also give weight to achieving a balance between the competing muscular systems of the trunk and the shoulder. Thus, athletes can maximize their skills and, at the same time, protect themselves from injuries.

This randomized controlled trial aimed to evaluate the effects of foam rolling (FR) recovery tool on oxidative stress biomarkers and sport-specific performance in male and female water polo (WP) players during a 7-week competitive period. The study also explored sex-based differences to guide tailored recovery strategies. Thirty-four WP players were recruited, with 27 completing the protocol (13 males and 14 females), and randomly assigned to a foam roller group or a control group (CG). Testing was conducted pre- and postintervention, measuring in-water boost, throwing speed, 20-m sprint swim, and oxidative stress biomarkers: Ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), glutathione, oxidative damage in proteins (ODPs), total thiols. Dietary intake was evaluated via a validated food frequency questionnaire in week 6. The FR positively influenced throwing speed (P=0.021) and antioxidant capacity in male players (FRAP, P=0.006). However, no significant improvements in sprint or boost performance were observed in females, with ODP increasing in both sexes, particularly in CG females (P<0.001). Regression analyses showed that FRAP improvements significantly predicted 20-m sprint performance (P=0.027 for females, P=0.043 for males). Dietary analysis revealed adequate protein and antioxidant intake but suboptimal carbohydrate consumption. These findings suggest that FR may enhance specific performance outcomes and antioxidant capacity, particularly in male WP players, though its effect on oxidative damage appears limited. Managing oxidative stress through recovery tools like FR and nutritional strategies remains essential for optimizing performance in high-intensity team sports.

Objectives:Water polo is a sport with highly unique physical demands, some of which include treading water, swimming speed and endurance, wrestling strength, and ball coordination. It is an Olympic sport with variable popularity around the globe, with a notable following in regions of Europe. In the United States, water polo is most popular on the west coast, and Pac-12 teams have dominated NCAA water polo for decades. Partially owing to the sport’s scattered distribution around the world, there is a paucity of rigorous data on injuries and illnesses suffered by elite water polo players. The objective of this study is therefore to characterize health events in a large sample of NCAA Pac-12 water polo players over a period of 4.5 years, in order to better understand common pathology and be more equipped to prevent and manage injuries and illnesses in the future.Methods:Deidentified data was acquired from the Pac-12 Health Analytics Program database on all recorded health events from 4 men’s water polo teams and 5 women’s water polo teams from January 2017 to June 2021. Events were first sorted into injury and illness categories, followed by further analysis into body part, diagnosis, return-to-play, and injury event/general mechanism. Additional analysis includes injury/illness rates as percentage of totals, estimated athlete yearly risk, and risk ratios comparing male versus female risks with accompanying 95% confidence intervals for determining statistically significant differences.Results:For our sample of 142 male athletes and 165 female athletes, 917 health events were recorded over our 4.5-year observation period, with 729 being classified as injuries and 188 as illnesses. The shoulder was the most commonly injured body part (150 events, 20.6%), followed by the head/face (137 events, 18.8%), hand/wrist/forearm (85 events, 11.7%), and groin/hip/pelvis/buttock (83 events, 11.4%). Males had an estimated yearly risk of a shoulder injury of 15.7% compared to 11.6% for females, though this did not reach statistical significance (RR 1.35, 95% CI 0.96-1.9). Male water polo players were significantly more likely than females to injure their spine/neck (RR 2.1, 95% CI 1.2-3.5). The five most common diagnoses were concussion (83 events), shoulder strain/spasm (57 events), shoulder tendinopathy/impingement (52 events), groin/hip strain/spasm (42 events), and finger sprain (37 events). For all these injuries besides concussions, the majority of athletes lost no time away from sport. For concussions however, 75.9% lost time and returned later in the season, and 4.7% lost time and either returned the following season or were unable to return. Males were significantly more likely than females to suffer a concussion in practice (RR 3.3, 95% CI 1.2-8.8) and via contact with another player (RR 2.9, CI 1.3-6.4), though there was no significant difference in concussion risk overall (RR 1.2, CI 0.8-1.9). For illnesses, non-COVID-19 respiratory tract infection was the most common health event (61 events, 32.5% of illnesses, estimated yearly risk of 6.4%), followed by symptomatic COVID-19 (17 events, 9.0% of illnesses), and skin/soft tissue infection (13 events, 6.9% of illnesses). 12 males had symptomatic COVID-19 compared to 5 females, which was statistically significant (RR 2.8, 95% CI 1.01-7.7), however there was no significance difference in asymptomatic COVID-19 (6 males vs. 6 females, RR 1.2, 95% CI 0.4-3.5).Conclusions:This study sheds much-needed light on the epidemiology of injuries and illnesses in a large sample of elite NCAA water polo players. Some of the highlights include relatively high rates of shoulder, face, and finger injuries, as well as groin injuries, corresponding to exposed above-water body parts and water-treading demands respectively. Other notable findings include a high burden of time loss due to concussions compared to other common injuries, and a high rate of concussions occurring in practice and via player contact for men, representing a prospective target for reducing these injuries. Finally, this study equips players, coaches, trainers, and physicians with a broad outline of injuries and illnesses suffered by water polo players, allowing them to more efficiently manage injuries and develop prevention strategies in the future.

To compare the pattern of injury between men and women in seven collegiate sports to determine if gender-specific factors exist which could be modified to reduce the risk of injury to female athletes. Retrospective cohort study of injury reports compiled by certified athletic trainers between Fall 1980 and Spring 1995. An NCAA division III College. Eighteen to 22 year-old male and female college athletes competing in seven like sports (basketball, cross-country running, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and water polo) at the intercollegiate level, playing similar number of contests and using the same facilities. Analyses of injury patterns, classified by sport and anatomic location, for men and women in seven like sports. A total of 3,767 participants were included in the study, with 1874 sports-related injuries reported among the men and women's teams. Of these injuries, 856 (45.7%) were sustained by female and 1018 (54.3%) by male athletes. Overall, no statistically significant gender difference was found for injuries per 100 participant-years (52.5 for female athlete versus 47.7 for males). A statistically significant gender difference in injury incidence (p < 0.001) was seen for two sports: swimming and water polo. Female swimmers reported more back/neck, shoulder, hip, knee and foot injuries: and female water polo players reported more shoulder injuries. When evaluating all sports concurrently, female athletes reported a higher rate of hip, lower-leg and shoulder injuries, while male athletes reported a higher rate of thigh injuries. Except for some minor gender differences in total injuries for two sports and several differences in total injuries by anatomic location, our data suggest very little difference in the pattern of injury between men and women competing in comparable sports. The increased rate of shoulder injury among female swimmers probably resulted from the more rigorous training philosophy of their coach. Thus, no gender-specific recommendations can be suggested for decreasing the incidence of injury to female athletes competing in these sports.