Female Wage Research Articles

Do wages fall when women enter an occupation?

I present causal evidence on the effect of women's entry into occupations on wages in the United States. I construct a shift-share instrument that interacts the dramatic increase in women's educational attainment and workforce participation from 1960 to 2010 with the likelihood that men and women enter each occupation. I find that a 10 percentage-point increase in the female fraction within an occupation leads to an 8 percent decrease in average male wage and a 7 percent decrease in average female wage in the concurrent census year, and an 9 percent decrease in male wages and a 14 percent decrease in female wages over 10 years.

DOUBLE ROLES OF MARRIED WORKING WOMEN IN INDONESIA: FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE?

SDGs 2030 have at least two goals that strongly converged to gender equality of pay, gender equality (Goal 5), and decent work and economic growth (Goal 8). Marital status argued to have significant contribution in gender inequality of pay and the root of female wage penalty. The argument associated with traditional family division of labour, where men responsible for family breadwinner and women for family caregiver. We examine this argument in Indonesia experiences with additional feature of multiple breadwinner models in the family. Utilizing Indonesian National Labour Force Survey of 2015 of more than 150.000 workers, our twofold regression compatible Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis confirmed the existence of statistically significant gender wage gap even when controlling for the human capital investment, family division of labour, institutional instrument and discrimination. Our findings suggest that married women tend to take a double roles than married men, being family breadwinner as well as family caregiver. In that double roles model, wage rate are highest among working women and marriage wage penalty died out. Unfortunately gender wage gap and wage discrimination persisted. While the role of minimum wage as current nominal institutional labour market instrument still trivial, other factors must also be addressed toward gender equality of pay and more efficient labour market.

DOUBLE ROLES OF MARRIED WORKING WOMEN IN INDONESIA: FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE?

SDGs 2030 have at least two goals that strongly converged to gender equality of pay, gender equality (Goal 5), and decent work and economic growth (Goal 8). Marital status argued to have significant contribution in gender inequality of pay and the root of female wage penalty. The argument associated with traditional family division of labour, where men responsible for family breadwinner and women for family caregiver. We examine this argument in Indonesia experiences with additional feature of multiple breadwinner models in the family. Utilizing Indonesian National Labour Force Survey of 2015 of more than 150.000 workers, our twofold regression compatible Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis confirmed the existence of statistically significant gender wage gap even when controlling for the human capital investment, family division of labour, institutional instrument and discrimination. Our findings suggest that married women tend to take a double roles than married men, being family breadwinner as well as family caregiver. In that double roles model, wage rate are highest among working women and marriage wage penalty died out. Unfortunately gender wage gap and wage discrimination persisted. While the role of minimum wage as current nominal institutional labour market instrument still trivial, other factors must also be addressed toward gender equality of pay and more efficient labour market.

DOUBLE ROLES OF MARRIED WORKING WOMEN IN INDONESIA: FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE?

SDGs 2030 have at least two goals that strongly converged to gender equality of pay, gender equality (Goal 5), and decent work and economic growth (Goal 8). Marital status argued to have significant contribution in gender inequality of pay and the root of female wage penalty. The argument associated with traditional family division of labour, where men responsible for family breadwinner and women for family caregiver. We examine this argument in Indonesia experiences with additional feature of multiple breadwinner models in the family. Utilizing Indonesian National Labour Force Survey of 2015 of more than 150.000 workers, our twofold regression compatible Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis confirmed the existence of statistically significant gender wage gap even when controlling for the human capital investment, family division of labour, institutional instrument and discrimination. Our findings suggest that married women tend to take a double roles than married men, being family breadwinner as well as family caregiver. In that double roles model, wage rate are highest among working women and marriage wage penalty died out. Unfortunately gender wage gap and wage discrimination persisted. While the role of minimum wage as current nominal institutional labour market instrument still trivial, other factors must also be addressed toward gender equality of pay and more efficient labour market.

Implementing quantile selection models in Stata

In this article, we describe qregsel, a community-contributed command that implements a copula-based sample-selection correction for quantile regression recently proposed by Arellano and Bonhomme (2017, Econometrica 85: 1–28). The command allows the user to model selection in quantile regressions by using either a Gaussian or a one-dimensional Frank copula. We illustrate the use of qregsel with two examples. First, we apply the method to the fictional dataset used in the Stata Base Reference Manual for the heckman command. Second, we replicate part of the empirical application of the original article using data for the United Kingdom that cover the period 1978–2000 to compare wages of males and females at different quantiles.

Half a century of female wage disadvantage: an analysis of Denmark’s public wage hierarchy in 1969 and today

ABSTRACT In June 1969, the Danish parliament passed an extensive law complex, known as the Public Servant Reform of 1969. An important part of the reform was a new wage and classification system into which all public employees were placed. In newer Danish research on the gender wage gap, it is a hypothesis that the reform created a wage hierarchy in the public sector which in general was unfavourable to female-dominated professions, and that this hierarchy largely has persisted to the present due to mechanisms in the collective bargaining system. In our article, we test this hypothesis using graphical analysis and descriptive statistics. Our study supports the existing hypothesis about a gender biased wage hierarchy in 1969. We find that there is a close coherence between the wage hierarchy in 1969 and the wage hierarchy in 2019. However, our analysis also shows how education level explains even less of the traditional female dominated professions’ position in the wage hierarchy in 2019 compared with 1969, and that this is still the case when we take absence patterns and family-friendly benefits into account. That points toward a wage system, which seems unable to adjust to changes in an established profession’s profile.

Double Roles of Married Working Women in Indonesia: For Better or For Worse

SDGs 2030 have at least two goals that strongly converged to gender equality of pay, gender equality, and decent work and economic growth. Marital status argued to have significant contribution in gender inequality of pay and the root of female wage penalty. The argument associated with traditional family division of labour, where men responsible for family breadwinner and women for family caregiver. We examine this argument in Indonesia experiences with additional feature of multiple breadwinner models in the family. Utilizing Indonesian National Labour Force Survey of 2015 of more than 150.000 workers, our twofold regression compatible Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis confirmed the existence of statistically significant gender wage gap even when controlling for the human capital investment, family division of labour, institutional instrument and discrimination. Our findings suggest that married women tend to take a double roles than married men, being family breadwinner as well as family caregiver. In that double roles model, wage rate are highest among working women and marriage wage penalty died out. Unfortunately gender wage gap and wage discrimination persisted. While the role of minimum wage as current nominal institutional labour market instrument still trivial, other factors must also be addressed toward gender equality of pay and more efficient labour market.SDGs 2030 have at least two goals that strongly converged to gender equality of pay, gender equality, and decent work and economic growth. Marital status argued to have significant contribution in gender inequality of pay and the root of female wage penalty. The argument associated with traditional family division of labour, where men responsible for family breadwinner and women for family caregiver. We examine this argument in Indonesia experiences with additional feature of multiple breadwinner models in the family. Utilizing Indonesian National Labour Force Survey of 2015 of more than 150.000 workers, our twofold regression compatible Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis confirmed the existence of statistically significant gender wage gap even when controlling for the human capital investment, family division of labour, institutional instrument and discrimination. Our findings suggest that married women tend to take a double roles than married men, being family breadwinner as well as family caregiver. In that double roles model, wage rate are highest among working women and marriage wage penalty died out. Unfortunately gender wage gap and wage discrimination persisted. While the role of minimum wage as current nominal institutional labour market instrument still trivial, other factors must also be addressed toward gender equality of pay and more efficient labour market.

Female Labor Supply Response to Alimony: Evidence from Massachusetts

This paper studies the labor supply response of women to changes in expected alimony. Using an alimony law change in the US that significantly reduced the post-divorce alimony support among women, I first show that this led to an increase in divorce probability. Second, consistent with the theoretical prediction from a simple model of labor supply, the reform led to an increase in the female labor force participation, with a larger increase among ever-married and more educated samples of women. As a result, the average female wage income increased after the reform. However, while labor supply increased, I show that most of this increase was concentrated in part-time employment, which may not be sufficient to compensate for the expected loss in alimony income. I estimate a net loss of $40,621 in PDV of lifetime income due to the reform. In light of the recent movement in the US to reform alimony laws, these findings are pertinent to understand its implications on women's labor supply and economic well-being.

Does energy poverty matter for gender inequality? Global evidence

Gender inequality has improved slightly over recent decades, but it is still a critical issue across the globe, especially in developing countries. This study investigates the influence of energy poverty reduction on gender inequality, using a sample of 51 developing countries from 2002 to 2017 and considering four dimensions: employment, health, education, and socio-political-economic rights. By applying a two-step system generalised method of moments estimator to deal with endogeneity, the results are shown to be statistically robust. Reduction in energy poverty appears to increase employment opportunities for women, especially in industry and service sectors, which results in an improvement in the number of female wage and salaried workers in comparison with their male counterparts. Energy poverty reduction is also found to re-balance gender inequality in health indicators. Notably, reduced energy poverty is an influential factor in gender equality in education and socio-economic rights. The results are checked for robustness by five different proxies of energy poverty reduction and different estimate strategies. Based on these findings, the governments of developing countries should focus principally on alleviating energy poverty as the first and most crucial policy to curb gender inequality.

The impact of occupational feminization on the gender wage gap and estimates of wage discrimination

ABSTRACT This study assesses the male-female wage gap across occupational categories ranked by gender density using data from the U.S. Current Population Survey. Our empirical findings suggest a consistent relationship between occupational feminization and the gender wage gap: female-dominated occupations have the lowest average earnings for men and women, whereas male-dominated occupations have the lowest gender wage gap. Gender-neutral occupations have the highest male and female wages, the largest gender wage gap, and the lowest estimated levels of wage discrimination.

Creating Cultural Capital: The Education of Jewish Females at the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU) School for Girls in the City of Tunis, 1882–1914

Abstract Based on rarely viewed images from the fin de siècle, this article will contribute to the burgeoning field of Jewish women in the world of Islam. At the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU) School for Girls in the city of Tunis, 1882–1914, after a seven-year course of study, Jewish and non-Jewish girls acquired certification of their academic or vocational skills through a certificate or diploma of couture. Such credentials, according to Bourdieu (1986), constitute “cultural capital.” Furthermore, “cultural capital … is convertible … into economic capital and may be institutionalized in the forms of educational qualifications.” A young woman could create cultural capital and transform it into economic capital through employment. Reading the sources, the influence of the Tunisian Muslim woman on the Jewess becomes apparent. Moreover, cultural capital could afford the Jewish female wage earner increased economic independence and social mobility, as she journeyed on the road to modernity.

Integration in export marketing channels and farms' labor force composition: Female agricultural workers in the Moroccan vegetable sector

AbstractThe Moroccan agricultural sector employs around 40% of the country's total working population. Since the early 1990s, there has been a striking increase in the proportion of female wage laborers. This article investigates the effect of the gendered composition of the agricultural wage labor force on horticultural farms. We draw on an original data set collected in 2010, comprising 240 agricultural holdings located in the region of Souss Massa. The results suggest that local labor shortages do not play a major role in explaining the ratio of female hired wage laborers. Instead, it seems that quality requirements are encouraging farm holdings to hire a female labor force. [EconLit citations: Q12, O13, J43]

Forced Displacement and Agriculture: Implications for Host Communities

The disruptive effects of conflict and climate-related shocks and their tendencies to cause human population displacements are well documented in the literature. Given the growing number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) worldwide and the resulting population and service demand overload in host communities, it is important to understand the socioeconomic impacts. Because many host communities in developing countries are agriculture dependent, we investigate what happens to key agricultural sector outcomes in host communities when there is an influx of IDPs. For displacements caused by insurgency, communal clashes, and natural disasters, we estimate the impacts on agricultural outputs, employment, wages, and land use. We find that forced displacements generally result in reduced agricultural production due to lower land and labor productivity. Specifically, while the effect of insurgency-driven IDP influx is negative, it is positive for communal violence. Cassava, potatoes, and soya are particularly hard hit. Additionally, while insurgency-driven population influx reduces the agricultural wages of both males and females, it increases the reliance on male and female household labor but has no effect on hired labor. Finally, while insurgency-driven IDP influx does not affect land use and land market activities, it lowers the expected value of land and the number of farm plots harvested. We highlight the opportunity to leverage humanitarian assistance in building local agricultural capacity in host communities.

From Physical Activity Intention to Behavior: The Moderation Role of Mental Toughness Among College Students and Wage Earners.

This study explored the correlation between mental toughness (MT) and physical activity (PA), and the moderation role between PA intention and subsequent behavior among college students and wage earners. Five hundred ninety-one college students (251 male, 340 female) aged from 19 to 24 and 285 (157 male, 127 female) wage earners aged from 27 to 58 recruited from seven colleges and five cities in China. A Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) questionnaire, MT Inventory, and the International PA Questionnaire was completed online. Results showed that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control explained 46.5 and 38.3% variance in PA intention among college students and wage earners separately. Intention predicted PA behavior significantly among college students and wage earners. Structural equation modeling indicated that the TPB model and the moderation model have an adequate to good fit except the TPB model among wage earners. MT was positively correlated with PA among college students and wage earners and had a significant moderation role in intention-behavior gap among college students and partially affected the transfer of PA intention to behavior among college students. Individuals with high MT had high levels of PA regardless of intention, while PA of those with low MT was low and unstable. Future research should further explore the correlation between intention and PA and the moderation role of MT in different populations using a longitudinal study in order to better understand the correlation between intention and PA, and the transition from intention to PA and better guidance PA intervention to promote PA.

Nonseparable sample selection models with censored selection rules

We consider identification and estimation of nonseparable sample selection models with censored selection rules. We employ a control function approach and discuss different objects of interest based on (1) local effects conditional on the control function, and (2) global effects obtained from integration over ranges of values of the control function. We derive conditions for identification of these different objects and suggest strategies for estimation. Moreover, we provide the associated asymptotic theory. These strategies are illustrated in an empirical investigation of the determinants of female wages in the United Kingdom.

Labor Market Institutions and the Distribution of Wages: The Role of Spillover Effects

This paper examines the role of spillover effects of minimum wages and threat effects of unionization in changes in wage inequality in the United States between 1979 and 2017. A distribution regression framework is introduced to estimate both types of spillover effects. Threat effects double the contribution of deunionization to the increase in male wage inequality. Spillover effects magnify the explanatory power of declining minimum wages to two-thirds of the increase in inequality at the bottom end of the female wage distribution.

Health-Related Risk Perceptions and Wage Compensation: Evidence from Turkey

In this paper, we estimate wage compensation of workers facing different risks adversely affecting their health and well-being based on individual evaluations of work environment by using the ad-hoc module of 2013 Household Labor Survey. Our results reveal that among various risk factors, only general risk of injury is compensated by a significant and positive premium. Informal workers and female wage earners do not receive additional payment working in risky environments. Allowing risk compensation to vary across wage dispersion, we find that positive compensations follow an inverse-u shape. We argue that in terms of unpleasant job attributes, the labor market in Turkey can be identified with labor segmentation rather compensating wage differentials.

Earnings gap between men and women in the informal labor market in Cameroon

AbstractThis paper investigates the extent of gender earnings gap among informal labor market workers in Cameroon. We have used the 2010 employment and informal sector survey, the Heckman two‐step bivariate selection model, and the Neuman–Oaxaca–Ransom decomposition framework to address these concerns. We find that, compared to men, women are more likely to make the joint decision of participating in the labor market and choosing informal work. Findings also reveal that among informal workers, male workers have an earnings premium over their female counterparts. Returns to informal labor market experience are solidly consistent in narrowing the gender earnings gap. Among the self‐employed workers, male workers also enjoy an earnings premium. However, when the inverse Mills ratio is decomposed, the overall and the self‐employed gender discrimination virtually disappears. Meanwhile, female wage earners enjoy a wage premium and have an unambiguous education‐based advantage over their male counterparts. The implications of these findings support the wisdom that promoting the human capital development of the girl child would play a vital role in alleviating gender‐based differentials by eroding sociocultural conventions and advancing women's agency.

Wage Growth across Fields of Study among Young College Graduates: Is There a Gender Gap?

AbstractWe use the Flexible Professional in the Knowledge Society data set to learn about gender gaps during the early career of college graduates in Europe. We document substantial heterogeneity across fields of education in the gender wage gap at the entrance to the labour market. We find that the gap evolves against women over the five years after graduation in Social Science and in Economics, Business, and Law. Finally, we estimate a significant female wage growth penalty after we control for observable characteristics only within the Economics, Business, and Law category. Within this field, we estimate a female annual wage growth penalty of 1.1 percentage points among individuals who remained childless and 2.5 percentage points among individuals who became parents. A small fraction of the wage growth gap disappears after we control for variables capturing individual differences in job mobility or in labour market attachment during the early career. (JEL codes: J16, J24, J31)

DETERMINAN TINGKAT PARTISIPASI ANGKATAN KERJA PEREMPUAN DI INDONESIA TAHUN 2015-2019 MENGGUNAKAN MODEL REGRESI DATA PANEL

Tingkat partisipasi angkatan kerja (TPAK) perempuan di Indonesia selalu lebih rendah dari TPAK laki-laki, bahkan perbedaannya sangat jauh dan tidak pernah mengerucut. Selain itu, tren TPAK perempuan mengalami stagnasi pada kisaran 50 persen selama lebih dari satu dekade terakhir. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki determinan TPAK perempuan di Indonesia tahun 2015-2019. Metode analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis inferensia dengan model regresi data panel. Fixed efffect model (FEM) dengan metode seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) dipilih sebagai model terbaik untuk melakukan estimasi model regresi data panel. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa semakin tinggi rata-rata lama sekolah (RLS) perempuan, upah tenaga kerja perempuan, jumlah tenaga kerja sektor industri pengolahan, jumlah tenaga kerja sektor pertanian dan produk domestik regional bruto atas dasar harga konstan (PDRB ADHK) dapat meningkatkan TPAK perempuan di Indonesia. Sementara itu, semakin tinggi jumlah penduduk yang mengurus rumah tangga dapat menurunkan TPAK perempuan di Indonesia.