Female Thorax Research Articles

The Neotropical caddisfly genus Tolhuaca (Trichoptera: Glossosomatidae)

The caddisfly genus Tolhauca Schmid 1964 (Glossosomatidae: Protoptilinae) is diagnosed and discussed in the context of other protoptiline genera, and a review of its taxonomic history is provided. A new species, Tolhuaca brasiliensis, from southeastern Brazil, is described and illustrated, and the type species, Tolhuaca cupulifera Schmid 1964, from Chile, is redescribed and illustrated. Additionally, females of the genus are described and illustrated for the first time. Characters of the female genitalia, wing venation, and thorax suggest that Tolhuaca is more primitive than any other protoptiline genus and probably deserves a basal placement within the subfamily. The genus shows a broadly disjunct distribution perhaps reflecting an ancient southern Gondwana pattern.

밀새우 (Exopalaemon carinicauda)의 생식소와 교접기의 발달

The morphological and histological changes of gonad in ridgetail prawn (Expalaemon carinicauda) were examined with the development of the external genitalia. The samples were collected monthly in Hampyung Bay on the western coast of Korea, from January to December 2003. The ovaries lie on the dorsal side of the female prawns thorax. The ovary cavity is located below the heart and above the hepatopancreas. The anterior part of the ovary is round and fused, and the posterior part has a pair of tubular structures. Testes are bilaterally symmetrical; the anterior part shows fused feature, and the posterior part consists of a pair of tubules. Based on histological examination, ripe eggs and spermatozoa were observed when mature females and males reach a length of about 14.9 and 11.5 mm CL, respectively. The immature female are almost same shape and structure with matured one in the endopod of first pleopod and appendix interna of the second pleopod, except the number of setae, and appear to be structurally complete after females reach a length of about 14.9 mm CL. The appendix masculina reaching beyond the distal end of the appendix interna of the second pleopod after males reach a length of more than 5.5 mm CL and a fully developed appendix masculina and appendix interna of the second pleopod appear up to a length of 11.5 mm CL.

REML estimates of genetic parameters of sexual dimorphism for wing and thorax length in Drosophila melanogaster.

Restricted maximum likelihood was used to estimate genetic parameters of male and female wing and thorax length in isofemale lines of Drosophila melanogaster, and results compared to estimates obtained earlier with the classical analysis of variance approach. As parents within an isofemale line were unknown, a total of 500 parental pedigrees were simulated and mean estimates computed. Full and half sibs were distinguished, in contrast to usual isofemale studies in which animals were all treated as half sibs and hence heritability was overestimated. Heritability was thus estimated at 0.33, 0.38, 0.30 and 0.33 for male and female wing length and male and female thorax length, respectively, whereas corresponding estimates obtained using analysis of variance were 0.46, 0.54, 0.35 and 0.38. Genetic correlations between male and female traits were 0.85 and 0.62 for wing and thorax length, respectively. Sexual dimorphism and the ratio of female to male traits were moderately heritable (0.30 and 0.23 for wing length, 0.38 and 0.23 for thorax length). Both were moderately and positively correlated with female traits, and weakly and negatively correlated with male traits. Such heritabilities confirmed that sexual dimorphism might be a fast evolving trait in Drosophila.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Microscopy of The Internal Structure of the Carrion Rolling Scarab Canthon cyanellus cyanellus (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Abstract Nuclear magnetic resonance microscopy was used to observe the internal structure of male and female carrion rolling scarab Canthon cyanellus cyanellus adults. Images were produced with a NMR microscope built at the University of Orsay, France. The NMR microscope operated at 360 MHz and produced images of live insects with an in-plan resolution of 30 μm × 30 μm from a slice 125 μm thick. NMR images of horizontal slices through head, thorax, and abdomen of males and females of different ages and physiological stages were obtained. Internal organs such as reproductive organs, gut, fat body, and pygidial glands were clearly observed in both sexes; ova at different stages and aedeagus were identified in females and males, respectively. Pygidial glands in both sexes and ova and fat body in females seem to be good indicators of the reproductive condition of the beetles. These results show the potential of NMR microscopy as a non-invasive method to study the relationships between the internal morphology,...

Mating Behavior of Cephalonomia tarsalis (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) and the Effect of Female Mating Frequency on Offspring Production

The courtship behavior of Cephalonomia tarsalis, a solitary semiectoparasitoid of Oryzaephilus surinamensis, was investigated in the laboratory. Courtship behavior includes a series of stereotypic movements. Males play the most active role, executing the majority of courtship action, and females respond with relatively limited observable behaviors. Males typically keep antennae still during encounters with females prior to mounting, which may be correlated with recognition of the female's sexual status. After mounting, males display a series of movements on females, such as antennae touching female's antennae, antennae or mouth touching female's head or thorax, and walking around on female, which may serve to stimulate females towards increased receptivity. Females signal receptivity by assuming a stereotypical posture of remaining stationary, with head down, and antennae still in front of the body. The male then inserts his aedeagus and the pair copulates. After an average of 40.4 s of copulation, females signal the end of copulation by waving the antennae and moving away from the copulation site. Males continue copulating for a short time after females start moving but dismount soon thereafter. After dismounting, the two wasps move away from each other immediately, and they typically begin grooming. Neither males nor females exhibit mating preference based on mate's mating status in both choice and no-choice tests. The male is polygynous and the mated female can mate multiple times within the first 3 days after starting oviposition. However, female mating frequency does not affect the production of female progeny.

산모양깔깔새우 (Metapenaeopsis dalei)의 생식기와 생식소 발달

Genital organs and gonad development in kishi velvet shrimp (Metapenaeopsis dalei) were studied based on morphological and histological observations. The samples were collected monthly around the Ochongdo area on the western coast of Korea, from April 1997 to December 1998. Thelycum appear structurally complete after females reach a length of about 12.0 mm CL. Petasma rarely Join after males reach a length of 10.6 mm CL and a fully developed petasma shows up to a length of 12.0 mm CL. The ovaries lie on the dorsal side of the female shrimps thorax. The ovary cavity is located below the heart and above the hepatopancreas. The anterior part of the ovary is round and fused, and the posterior part shows a pair of tubule-like structures. Testes are bilaterally symmetrical, the anterior part shows a convoluted tubule, and the posterior part consists of a pair of tubules. In histological observations, ripe eggs and spermatozoon show when mature females and males reach a length of about 12.0 mm CL.

징거미새우, Macrobrachium nipponense 수정관의 미세구조와 기능

징거미새우의 수정관은 정소의 중앙 후반부에서 기원되어 제 5보각의 기부에 위치한 생식공까지 연결되어 있고 그 형태에 따라 짧고 가느다란 기부, 나선부, 직선상의 말단부 그리고 사정관 4부분으로 구분할 수 있다. 수정관 기부의 내강은 높이가 <TEX>$12{\~}28{\mu}m$</TEX>의 SCE가 랴은 기저막으로 둘러싸여 있다. 그리고 일부에 높은 HCE도 관찰된다. 나선부와 말단부의 내강은 배면으로는 <TEX>$40\~120{\mu}m$</TEX> 높이의 높은 HCE가 그리고 복면과 측면에는 <TEX>$12\~28{\mu}m$</TEX> 범위의 SCE로 구성되어 있다. 수정관의 사정관에는 종주근과 환상근으로 이루어진 근세포들로 둘러싸여 있고 2종류의 상피세포는 거의 비슷한 비율로 이루어져 있다. 한편, 기부의 내강에는 성숙정자와 호염기성 기질만 관찰되는 반면, 나선부부터는 SCE주변으로 호 산성 기질이 함께 나타난다. 사정관내에 저장되어 있던 정자덩어리와 정자를 싸고있는 물질이 양쪽의 생식공으로부터 한 쌍의 관형태의 정포로 되어 교미 직후의 암컷의 <TEX>$2\~4 $</TEX>또는 5번째 보각의 복판에 부착된다. 정포는 그 길이가 <TEX>$2.7\~4.0mm$</TEX>, 폭이 <TEX>$1.5\~2.7mrn$</TEX> 정도의 크기였다. Vas deferens is a long tube and could be divided into four regions as its morphological characters: a short and slender proximal region, a convoluted region, a straight and more thick distal region, and an ejaculatory duct, It is connected with the posterior outer horns of the testis and runs to the gonopores opened on the coxa of the fifth walking legs, The proximal region consists almost entirely of simple cuboidal epithelial cells, <TEX>$12\~28{\mu}$</TEX>m in height, surrounded by a thin basal membrane. A small aggregation of high cuboidal epithelium is obsened from one side of the proximal region. The convoluted and distal region is composed of two kinds of epithelial cells; high cuboidal epithelial cells, <TEX>$40\~120{\mu}m$</TEX> in height located in dorsal portion and simple cuboidal epithelial cells of <TEX>$12\~28{\mu}$</TEX>m in height located in ventral and lateral portion. The ejaculatory duct is surrounded with two kinds of muscle layers, inner longitudinal and outer circular muscle fibers, The lumen is lined with high and simple cuboidal epithelium in almost equal proportions. The proximal region contains mature sperm and basophilic substances. The eosinophilic substances appeared newly going toward the convoluted region and are laid along simple cuboidal epithelial cell layer. Tube-like content (spermatophore) of the vas deferens is ejaculated from a pair of genital pores at mating. Two masses of the content fuse together side by side and are usually deposited on the female thorax between the second and fourth or fifth pereiopods, The spermatophore formed measures <TEX>$2.7\~4.0$</TEX> mm in length and <TEX>$1.5\~2.7$</TEX> mm in width.

Courtship and mating by the sandfly Phlebotomus duboscqi, a vector of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Afrotropical region.

Courtship behaviour of males of the Afrotropical sandfly Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu-Lemaire (Diptera: Psychodidae) involved mounting the female and clasping her 'waist' with the male coxites placed between the female's thorax and abdomen. This behaviour, which we call 'piggy-backing', was preceded by male wing beating, perhaps involving mate recognition and contact pheromones. It did not seem to be pre- or postcopulatory mate guarding. Piggy-backing was attempted by P. duboscqi males on females of other species (P. papatasi and P. perniciosus) and even on other male P. duboscqi. The majority of female P. duboscqi piggy-backed by males were already inseminated, and most of the courting did not lead to copulation. This, coupled with the presence of a mating plug (semen) in each spermatheca of inseminated females, suggests that female P. duboscqi are monogamous for at least the first gonotrophic cycle. Male courtship with piggy-backing was more intense when females could feed on a hamster than when a hamster was present but the females were denied access to the host. It is suggested that, when a hamster was available to the females, the conditions in the laboratory are similar to those in rodent holes, the natural habitat of P. duboscqi.

The genetics of phenotypic plasticity. IX. Genetic architecture, temperature, and sex differences in Drosophila melanogaster.

We examined the genetic architecture of plasticity of thorax and wing length in response to temperature in Drosophila melanogaster. Reaction norms as a function of growth temperature were analyzed in 20 isofemale lines in a natural population collected from Grande Ferrade near Bordeaux (southern France) in two different years. We found evidence for a complex genetic architecture underlying the reaction norms and differences between males and females. Reaction norms were negative quadratics. Genetic correlations were moderately high between traits within environments. Among characteristic values, the magnitudes of genetic correlations varied among traits and sexes. We hypothesized that genetic correlations among environments would decrease as temperatures became more different. This expectation was upheld for only one trait, female thorax length. For males for both traits, the correlations were large for both very similar and very different temperatures. These correlations may constrain the evolution of the shape of the reaction norms. Whether the extent of independence implies specific regulatory genes or only a specific allelic regulation of trait genes can not be decided from our results.

THE GENETICS OF PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY. IX. GENETIC ARCHITECTURE, TEMPERATURE, AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

We examined the genetic architecture of plasticity of thorax and wing length in response to temperature in Drosophila melanogaster. Reaction norms as a function of growth temperature were analyzed in 20 isofemale lines in a natural population collected from Grande Ferrade near Bordeaux (southern France) in two different years. We found evidence for a complex genetic architecture underlying the reaction norms and differences between males and females. Reaction norms were negative quadratics. Genetic correlations were moderately high between traits within environments. Among characteristic values, the magnitudes of genetic correlations varied among traits and sexes. We hypothesized that genetic correlations among environments would decrease as temperatures became more different. This expectation was upheld for only one trait, female thorax length. For males for both traits, the correlations were large for both very similar and very different temperatures. These correlations may constrain the evolution of the shape of the reaction norms. Whether the extent of independence implies specific regulatory genes or only a specific allelic regulation of trait genes can not be decided from our results.Corresponding Editor: T. Mousseau

Manipulation of habitat quality: effects on chironomid life history traits

1. To understand how habitat heterogeneity affects organisms, the present authors measured the response of chironomid life‐histories to single patch types in a controlled laboratory experiment. The objective was to determine whether the size and type of leaf particles in the substratum affect development rate and survival of larvae, and the fecundity of the resulting adults.2. Chironomus riparius larvae were raised in sand supplemented with dogwood, Cornus florida, (a rapid decomposer) or American sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, (a refractory decomposer) leaves fully crossed in a factorial design with four leaf particle sizes (0.2, 0.5, 1 and 5 cm2), or in sand only.3. Development time was shorter in dogwood habitats than sycamore habitats, and shorter in sycamore habitats than in sand habitats. Survival was higher and larval head capsule lengths of instars III and IV were larger in dogwood than in sycamore or sand habitats. Development time was longer and head capsule lengths of instars III and IV were smaller in habitats with 5‐cm2 leaf particles than in 0.2‐, 0.5‐ and 1‐cm2 particle size treatments. Female thorax length (a measure of fecundity) did not differ among treatments.4. The present authors conclude that, for C. riparius confined to a single patch type, fitness is significantly enhanced when the patch contains small particles of dogwood (labile) leaves.

Cues for Mate Recognition and the Effect of Prior Experience on Mate Recognition in Enallagma Damselflies

In many coenagrionid damselflies, sexually mature females exhibit color polymorphisms, with some females resembling conspecific males. Although it has been suggested that the latter function as male mimics, this does not appear to be the case for those in the genus Enallagma. We found that sexually dimorphic coloration of the female abdomen and thorax are important cues for sexual recognition by males. We demonstrate for the first time in the Odonata, that males learn to recognize andromorphs as potential mates. After 2 days in an enclosure, sexually mature males exposed to only andromorphic females initiated more sexual interactions with tethered andromorphs than with heteromorphs, the majority morph in the natural population. Exposure to only heteromorphic females tended to decrease males' sexual responses to andromorphs, but not significantly so. Because the frequency of female morphs often varies within a population, learned mate recognition would be advantageous for males that search for mates. Our results lead to a novel, frequency-dependent hypothesis for the occurrence and maintenance of female-limited color polymorphisms.

Nuptial Gifts, Resource Budgets, and Reproductive Output in a Polyandrous Butterfly

Many female insects receive material during mating, referred to as “nuptial gifts,” that may increase the female’s resource budget. This investigation examines how nuptial gifts influence female nitrogen and carbon budgets in a polyandrous butterfly, Pieris napi. During mating, a virgin male of this species transfers a large and nutritious ejaculate containing 14% nitrogen by dry mass. The amount of nitrogen transferred is equivalent to that in ∼70 eggs. Females use the male-transferred nutrients to increase their pool of nutrients used for egg production and show a positive relationship between amount of ejaculate material received and lifetime reproductive output. It is clear that for multiply mated females, nitrogen derived from male nuptial gifts is essential for a balanced nitrogen budget. As in earlier studies, female thorax mass decreased with age, indicating that old females of P. napi are able to use more of the resources from their thorax than young females. Since male-transferred material also increases female longevity, multiply mated females also use more of their resources from the thorax. Consequently, multiply mated females have a relatively higher reproductive investment than singly mated females, i.e., they transform a larger part of their body reserves to egg production. These results are important for studies that involve male-transferred nutrients in female life history patterns as well as for investigations of links between nuptial gifts and sexual selection theory. When the value of nuptial gifts is determined only on the nutritional value of the gift itself rather than the function within the female, there is an obvious risk for incorrect conclusions.

NUPTIAL GIFTS, RESOURCE BUDGETS, AND REPRODUCTIVE OUTPUT IN A POLYANDROUS BUTTERFLY

Many female insects receive material during mating, referred to as “nuptial gifts,” that may increase the female’s resource budget. This investigation examines how nuptial gifts influence female nitrogen and carbon budgets in a polyandrous butterfly, Pieris napi. During mating, a virgin male of this species transfers a large and nutritious ejaculate containing 14% nitrogen by dry mass. The amount of nitrogen transferred is equivalent to that in ∼70 eggs. Females use the male-transferred nutrients to increase their pool of nutrients used for egg production and show a positive relationship between amount of ejaculate material received and lifetime reproductive output. It is clear that for multiply mated females, nitrogen derived from male nuptial gifts is essential for a balanced nitrogen budget. As in earlier studies, female thorax mass decreased with age, indicating that old females of P. napi are able to use more of the resources from their thorax than young females. Since male-transferred material also increases female longevity, multiply mated females also use more of their resources from the thorax. Consequently, multiply mated females have a relatively higher reproductive investment than singly mated females, i.e., they transform a larger part of their body reserves to egg production. These results are important for studies that involve male-transferred nutrients in female life history patterns as well as for investigations of links between nuptial gifts and sexual selection theory. When the value of nuptial gifts is determined only on the nutritional value of the gift itself rather than the function within the female, there is an obvious risk for incorrect conclusions.

Malaria infection of the mosquitoAnopheles gambiaeactivates immune-responsive genes during critical transition stages of the parasite life cycle

Six gene markers have been used to map the progress of the innate immune response of the mosquito vector, Anopheles gambiae, upon infection by the malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. In addition to four previously reported genes, the set of markers included NOS (a nitric oxide synthase gene fragment) and ICHIT (a gene encoding two putative chitin-binding domains separated by a polythreonine-rich mucin region). In the midgut, a robust response occurs at 24 h post-infection, at a time when malaria ookinetes traverse the midgut epithelium, but subsides at later phases of malaria development. In contrast, the salivary glands show no significant response at 24 h, but are activated in a prolonged late phase when sporozoites are released from the midgut into the haemolymph and invade the glands, between 10 and 25 days after blood feeding. Furthermore, the abdomen of the mosquito minus the midgut shows significant activation of immune markers, with complex kinetics that are distinct from those of both midgut and salivary glands. The parasite evidently elicits immune responses in multiple tissues of the mosquito, two of which are epithelia that the parasite must traverse to complete its development. The mechanisms of these responses and their significance for malaria transmission are discussed.

A phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of sexual dimorphism and mating systems in water striders (Hemiptera: Gerridae)

Abstract Conflicts over mating decisions characterize the sexual behaviour of many insects,in particular when males encounter females that already carry enough sperm to fertilize their eggs, since a mating often will inflict greater costs than benefits upon females. Therefore, coevolutionary models predict adaptation and counter-adaptation by the sexes in a battle to control the outcome of sexual encounters. A phylogenetic analysis was performed on patterns of sexual dimorphism and mating systems within water striders (Hemiptera, Gerridae). Phylogenetic effects or «constraints» have significantly shaped patterns of sexual dimorphism in female/male size ratios, legs and genitalia of males, and the structure of the female abdomen. Males of ancestral gerrids were probably slightly smaller than conspecific females, had powerful fore legs adapted to grasp the female's thorax during mating, and had clasping genitalic structures suited to grasp or pinch the female posteriorly. Most gerrids have a female/male size ratio between 1.05 and 1.14, but more pronounced sexual size ratios (above 1.25) have independently evolved several times in the family, usually in association with extended post-copulatory mate guarding. The comparative, phylogenetic analysis suggests coevolution of female anticlasper and male clasping devices for the clade comprising the subfamilies Cylindrostethinae, Ptilomerinae, and Halobatinae while female anticlasper devices have evolved in the absence of male clasping genitalia in the Gerrinae. The ancestral and most common mating system in gerrids is «scramble competition polygyny» from which has evolved «resource defence polygyny» at least four times independently of each other. The phylogenetic effects on patterns of mating behaviour are much less obvious, as exemplified by the large amount of interspecific variation in some genera.

A phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of sexual dimorphism and mating systems in water striders (Hemiptera: Gerridae)

Conflicts over mating decisions characterize the sexual behaviour of many insects,in particular when males encounter females that already carry enough sperm to fertilize their eggs, since a mating often will inflict greater costs than benefits upon females. Therefore, coevolutionary models predict adaptation and counter-adaptation by the sexes in a battle to control the outcome of sexual encounters. A phylogenetic analysis was performed on patterns of sexual dimorphism and mating systems within water striders (Hemiptera, Gerridae). Phylogenetic effects or «constraints» have significantly shaped patterns of sexual dimorphism in female/male size ratios, legs and genitalia of males, and the structure of the female abdomen. Males of ancestral gerrids were probably slightly smaller than conspecific females, had powerful fore legs adapted to grasp the female's thorax during mating, and had clasping genitalic structures suited to grasp or pinch the female posteriorly. Most gerrids have a female/male size ratio between 1.05 and 1.14, but more pronounced sexual size ratios (above 1.25) have independently evolved several times in the family, usually in association with extended post-copulatory mate guarding. The comparative, phylogenetic analysis suggests coevolution of female anticlasper and male clasping devices for the clade comprising the subfamilies Cylindrostethinae, Ptilomerinae, and Halobatinae while female anticlasper devices have evolved in the absence of male clasping genitalia in the Gerrinae. The ancestral and most common mating system in gerrids is «scramble competition polygyny» from which has evolved «resource defence polygyny» at least four times independently of each other. The phylogenetic effects on patterns of mating behaviour are much less obvious, as exemplified by the large amount of interspecific variation in some genera.

Phylogenetic relations among the South American thynnine tiphiid wasps (Hymenoptera)

Abstract. Phylogenetic relationships among the South American thynnine tiphiids are analysed, using previously unused characters from the female head, male and female terminalia, mouthparts and thorax. A new tribe, Scotaenini, is proposed to include the South American genera: Scotaena, Anodontyra, Pseudelaphroptera, Parelaphroptera, Glottynoides, Glottynnus, Rostrynnus and Ornepetes. One genus, Aelurus, is the only neotropical representative of the tribe Rhagigasterini. The remaining South American genera belong to the Thynnini. In addition, keys to and a synonymic checklist of the South American genera are included. One specific synonymy (Anodontyra interrupta Duran 1941 with A.tricolor Westwood 1835), and one generic synonymy (Pseudornepetes Duran 1941 with Pseudelaphroptera Ashmead 1903) are proposed. Telephoromyia exsecta Turner is newly transferred to Spilothynnus.

EVIDENCE FOR A SEX PHEROMONE IN THE MULLEIN BUG, CAMPYLOMMA VERBASCI (MEYER) (HETEROPTERA: MIRIDAE)

AbstractMale mullein bugs, Campylomma verbasci (Meyer), were attracted in field experiments in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia to traps baited with females, extracts of crushed females, or Porapak Q-captured volatiles from females on common mullein, Verbascum thapsus L. Extracts from the female head and thorax attracted more males than did abdominal extracts. Traps baited with C. verbasci of both sexes caged together were not attractive. Analysis by coupled gas chromatography – mass spectrometry revealed n-butyl butyrate and n-hexyl butyrate in female extracts and captured volatiles, but only the latter compound in male extracts. However, these esters were unattractive, either alone or combined. We suggest that Porapak Q-captured volatiles could be used in pheromone isolation, and that pheromone-baited traps have promise in monitoring populations of C. verbasci.

Campoletis sonorensis Endoparasitic Wasps Contain Forms of C. sonorensis Virus DNA Suggestive of Integrated and Extrachromosomal Polydnavirus DNAs

Campoletis sonorensis virus (CsV) (Polydnaviridae) previously was detected only in the calyx epithelial cells and lumen of the oviducts from female C. sonorensis (Ichneumonidae) endoparasitic wasps (Norton et al., Cell Tissue Res. 162:195-208, 1975). Using dot-blot hybridizations, we detected low amounts of CsV DNA in male and female wasp head and thorax tissues and in male abdominal tissues. Low amounts of extrachromosomal viral DNA were detected in Southern blots of undigested male wasp DNA and in male DNA purified by isopycnic centrifugation. High-molecular-weight male wasp DNA digested with any of several restriction endonucleases and hybridized with cloned viral DNAs from CsV superhelices B and Q under stringent conditions contained CsV-specific DNA fragments that differed significantly in size and number from the hybridizing fragments detected in comparably digested viral DNA. Identical offsize restriction fragments were detected in digested female head and thorax DNA. These data suggest that at least CsV DNAs B and Q are integrated in C. sonorensis cellular DNA and that the virus may be transmitted through the germline.