Female Slaves Research Articles

On the question of domestic slaves in late medieval and early modern Zoroastrianism

Abstract This article collects and analyses passages about male and female domestic slaves in the Persian Rivāyats. The Rivāyats consist of correspondence between Iranian and Indian Zoroastrians (Parsis) from the late fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries ce. In these letters, Parsis sought the opinions of Iranian Zoroastrians on various doctrinal and ritual issues. The passages in question cover a range of subjects, including the issue of converting household slaves to Zoroastrianism, their participation in domestic religious ceremonies, the exposure of their dead bodies in the towers of silence, and marrying female slaves. These references to slaves challenge the conventional narrative that pre-modern Zoroastrians were oppressed, marginalized, and poor communities. This narrative has overshadowed these pieces of evidence and has caused them not to be studied seriously. This paper seeks to go beyond this traditional reconstruction by examining these texts based on their context. The passages reflect the actual socio-religious issues of Zoroastrians, especially Parsis, and demonstrate their participation in the slave-owning milieu of late medieval and early modern Gujarat and Iran rather than mere anachronistic elements or rhetorical tools reflecting a scholastic treatment of a defunct legal question.

Liberation or Discipline: Female Abolitionists' Interpretation of the Issue of Female Slaves

Liberation or Discipline: Female Abolitionists' Interpretation of the Issue of Female Slaves

Disparity in Supreme Court Decisions and Medan Religious Court Decisions Regarding the Determination of Heirs

The Supreme Court, through Decision Number 485 K/Ag/2013, issued a decision regarding determining the inheritance rights of non-Muslim heirs through the 'aṣabah sababiyah route. The legal basis regarding 'aṣabah sababiyah is not contained in the marriage law or the compilation of Islamic law. In its decision, the Supreme Court referred to the 'aṣabah sababiyah theory of Egyptian inheritance law. This decision is a legal effort based on the decision of the Medan Religious Court Number 751/Pdt.G/2011/PA.MDN, which stated that, in inheritance law, the number of ulama agreed to require that heirs and heirs must have the same religion, namely Islam. This problem is interesting to study in more depth through the views of the Medan Religious Court judges and analyze based on a progressive legal perspective. This research is empirical legal research with a qualitative approach, and data collection in this research uses observation, interview techniques, and then analysis. This research found that 'aṣabah sababiyah is an asabah in the class of heirs, which occurs because of freeing both male and female slaves. The views of the Medan Religious Court judges regarding Supreme Court decision Number 485 K/AG/2013 concerning the Determination of the Heirs of 'Ashabah Sababiyah are in two groups, namely accepting the decision and rejecting the decision. If the disparity in the decisions of the Supreme Court and the Medan Religious Court in determining heirs of different religions is viewed based on progressive law, then Supreme Court Decision Number 485 K/AG/2013 is closer to the value of legal progressivity because one form of application of progressive law by judges is to realize social justice through the method of legal discovery by placing social justice in society above statutory regulations.

Black Women Reporting and Seeking Help for Sexual Assault: A Call for Action

Black women in America have historically been victims of oppression, racism, and sexual assault. This victimization can be traced as far back as the forced immigration to America in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Forced travel bondage on slave ships highlights the institutionalized pattern, not only of their suffering from repeated rape, but also logs their victimized sufferings in silence that they had to endure then and continue to endure in 21st century contemporary America. Black women have been socialized intergenerationally to respond in a specific manner similar to the female slaves who endured rape from ship crew members during their long voyage to the Americas. Even after slavery was legally abolished in 1865, Black women continued to endure victimizations not only due to their gender, but also due to discrimination, classism, perceptions regarding their sexuality, racism, and fear. These intersectional factors cause Black women to have become unique experiences at the hands of rapists. Thus, Black women have unique experiences as victims of rape than other individuals who are also rape victims. Any discussion of Black women and rape must be placed in a sociohistorical framework. The purpose of this article is to revisit historical underpinnings about the rape of Black women in a socialized manner that continues to hinder a silent, nonactive role, and in some instances denial of being a victim of rape. The aim is to sensitize, stimulate, and motivate action by increasing social work classroom discussions about the topic, increasing research in the area of rape of Black women utilizing an intersectional approach reviewing factors that are unique to Black women, and providing more information as a resource to enhance community awareness. Effective intervention strategies are also delineated.

Al-Ḥakam I in the Andalusi Sources: His Slaves, Eunuchs, and Concubines

ABSTRACT Al-Ḥakam I (154-206 AH/771-822 CE) is one of the most controversial characters in the history of al-Andalus. Despite the fact that the extant chronicles of the Umayyad emirate and caliphate in al-Andalus are fundamentally pro-Umayyad, their authors nevertheless depict the emir as a cruel and pitiless character and are never at a loss in finding harsh terms to describe his political and military actions. The personality of the emir is especially evident in the descriptions that the chronicles make of his treatment of the slaves in his court. Firstly, this article seeks to underline the importance that slaves had in the court of al-Ḥakam and, secondly, it provides an analysis of the historians’ depictions of the emir based on the relationship he had with both his male and female slaves. Even though slaves in the Umayyad court have often been treated as secondary characters, their role is fundamental both in the narration of events and in the portrayal that Arab historians present of the sovereigns.

Benefits Granted to Slaves or Domestic Servants by their Masters on Lusignan Cyprus: Evidence from the Notarial Deeds, 1362–1458

This paper examines the evidence gleaned from Venetian and Genoese notarial deeds prepared on Cyprus during the period 1362-1458 to examine and discuss the relations between domestic slaves or servants, usually but not invariably female, and their masters, predominantly male. Some of these deeds were wills, containing bequests to servile women who had probably been in long term sexual relationships with their owners and to the illegitimate children who had been born from such relationships. Some of the apprenticeship contracts drawn up in Famagusta, the chief port of the island, also concern illegitimate children born to female slaves or maidservants, who were apprenticed at the owner’s expense for a number of years to a master craftsman so as to learn a trade and make a living on their completion of the apprenticeship. Some owners bequeathed houses to women other than their wives, either as a gift or else stipulating their right to reside in them. Sometimes moveable property such as furniture, bedding, silver or valuable objects were bequeathed, or even sums of money. Clearly at least some masters wished to provide for their mistresses and illegitimate children, thereby ensuring their welfare after their own deaths. By way of comparison, in Genoa masters who had sired illegitimate children with their female slaves frequently avoided paying for their upbringing, differing in this respect. Yet even on Cyprus concern on the part of masters for slaves or servants was not standard practice. Evidence from the fifteenth century Cypriot chronicle of Leontios Makhairas shows that slaves were sometimes treated cruelly, even to the point of driving them to suicide.

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

KELUARGA BERENCANA (KAJIAN LIVING HADIS)

In this paper, talking about family planning according to the perspective of living hadith, in relation to government programs in implementing the program with the aim of preventing the explosion of the birth rate in Indonesia, another mission of this program is aimed at welfare and saving many mothers and babies. In this study, the writing style of the living hadith is more used, namely putting forward and quoting the hadiths related to themes. The hadith raised in the theme of family planning is a hadith in which a man came to Rasulullah SAW, and said he often slept with his female slave and did not want her to become pregnant, then Rasulullah advised her by doing 'azl. This theme explains the various viewpoints of family planning in terms of Islamic law, views of human rights, and also disagree with family planning.

The metaphorical representation of the concept of “mother” in the epic works by Borys Antonenko-Davydovych, Rou Shi and Vsevolod Ivanov

The research paper highlights the metaphorical representation of the concept of "mother" in the works of fiction by Ukrainian, Chinese and Russian writers. The authors of this paper analyzed the novel "Behind the curtain" by Borys Antonenko-Davydovych, the story "A Slave Mother" ("为奴隶的母亲") by Rou Shi and the story "Polaia Arapiia" by Vsevolod Ivanov. In Borys Antonenko-Davydovych’s novel "Behind the curtain" the metaphor of "Motherland" is represented by the concept of "mother". In the novel this metaphor is defined by the research paper’s authors from the subtext of the work of fiction. The concept of "mother" in the story of Chinese writer is realized through the metaphor of "female slave", that is presented in the title of the work. The metaphor of "hope" represents the concept of "mother" in the story of Russian writer, this metaphor is represented in the name of the main character. This paper proves that the concept of "mother" in the epic works of Ukrainian, Chinese and Russian writers is also represented through the metaphor of "berehynia", which indicates the similarity of these three works. The concept of "mother" in the novel "Behind the curtain" by Borys Antonenko-Davydovych, the story "A Slave Mother" ("为奴隶的母亲") by Rou Shi and the story "Polaia Arapiia" by Vsevolod Ivanov is represented through similar semantic markers: motherly love, humility, self-sacrifice, mental strength over a man, unselfishness, protection, humanity, kindness.

Running from Bondage: Enslaved Women and Their Remarkable Fight for Freedom in Revolutionary America

Running from Bondage by Karen Cook Bell examines the understudied subject of runaway female slaves during America's revolutionary era. The author begins this very good book with a series of questions around which she builds her argument: “How did Black women advance their own liberation during the Revolutionary Era? What regional variations and similarities existed in the flight of enslaved women … How does Black women's flight fit into the larger narrative of slave resistance?” (p. 17). Building upon the research of such scholars as Sylvia Frey and Gary Nash, Bell argues that Black women actively resisted enslavement by fleeing from owners and seeking permanent freedom for themselves and their children. Furthermore, she asserts, “it is imperative to see Black women as visible participants and self-determined figures” in the first wave of abolitionism that began during the American Revolution (p. 160). Relying on runaway advertisements as her key source, Bell organizes her book thematically and chronologically, beginning each chapter with an advertisement focused on a particular enslaved woman. Chapter 2, on prerevolutionary fugitive women, for instance, opens with a 1770 advertisement concerning a literate mulatto woman named Margaret. After disguising herself in men's clothing, Margaret escaped from Baltimore. The publication further explains that she “has been in Barbados, Antigua, the Grenades, Philadelphia” (p. 44). Viewing Margaret's story as “a microcosm of the lives of other fugitive women,” Bell then discusses how, within a rapidly changing Atlantic world, ideas of freedom led other Black women to acts of self-emancipation (p. 45).

The Boundaries of Freedom: Slavery, Abolition, and the Making of Modern Brazil Edited by Brodwyn Fischer and Keila Grinberg

With an introduction and a collection of fifteen chapters, Fischer and Grinberg have provided one of the most insightful and wide-ranging analyses of slavery, abolition, and its legacies in Brazil published to date. The editors’ introduction highlights three individuals who re-surface throughout the volume. Son of a wealthy landowner in the province (now state) of Pernambuco, Joaquim Nabuco (1813–1878) founded the Brazilian Anti-Slavery Society in September 1880. That Society and Nabuco’s book Abolitionism (1883) helped to foment a movement that brought Brazilian slavery to an end in 1888. Nabuco denounced slavery’s impact on all sectors of Brazilian society, highlighting how it corrupted the rule of law and harmed economic development.From the same state of Pernambuco, Gilberto Freyre (1900–1987) became one of Brazil’s most famous intellectuals of the twentieth century. Freyre’s depiction of beneficent slave owners and “racial democracy” in post-emancipation Brazil have been thoroughly debunked. Nevertheless, his descriptions of patriarchalism, family structure, sexuality, and race mixture remain hugely relevant.The third intellectual is Abdias do Nascimento (1914–2011), an African Brazilian from São Paulo. As activist, journalist, playwright, and professor, Nascimento relentlessly affirmed the contributions of Africans and their descendants to Brazilian society. By emphasizing Black resistance to enslavement and detailing the pervasive racism directed toward Blackness since the founding of the nation, Nascimento fueled controversial debates. Many of his initiatives became government policy, such as the revision of educational curricula to include diverse histories and affirmative action in employment. Nabuco’s critiques of institutions and economics, Freyre’s expansive social histories, and Nascimento’s studies of culture inspired research that is readily witnessed in The Boundaries of Freedom. Extended stays and experiences outside Brazil influenced all three of these men; several of the chapters address the theme of transnationalism.In a section entitled “On the Ethic of Silence,” Hebe Mattos comments on the book’s interdisciplinarity: “The theoretical references for this work [the collection of chapters] from E. P. Thompson’s cultural Marxism to the micro-historical methodologies of Fredrik Barth, emphasize the relational and political meanings of collective identity formation, as well as the relationship between normative structures and social agency” (317). Tying macro-histories (such as paternalism, plantation economies, class relations, and expanding capitalism) with micro-histories (such as slave flight, court appeals, day-by-day violence, labor conditions, and residential patterns), contributors shed light on silent histories and “precarious freedoms” during and after slavery. Quantitative methods provide evidence of the transport of enslaved children to the province of Pernambuco. Local legislation banned the purchase of goods produced by slaves and prevented access to taverns. “Subterranean structures” ensured the marginalization of female slaves and free Black women after emancipation. Free Black intellectuals, such as Teodoro Sampaio and André Rebouças, employed personal and professional skills to negotiate their way in hostile environments. Complex themes related to social agency and Black resistance emerge through contributors’ meticulous readings of original written documents and newspapers, as well as a close viewing of posters, paintings, and photographs located in archives large and small inside and outside Brazil.In a chapter describing relations between Brazil and Uruguay, Grinberg shows how tensions mounted pursuant to Uruguay’s emancipation decree of 1842. Slaves who crossed the border into Uruguay gained their freedom; they could not be re-enslaved if they returned to Brazil because of an 1831 Brazilian law that banned the importation of slaves to Brazil. Planters in the southernmost province of Rio Grande do Sul condemned their own government for failing to prevent slave flight and protect their property (ownership of slaves). Instead of following traditional approaches to the study of diplomacy, Grinberg points to the need to “forge a social history of international relations” (131). Such a plea, alongside the path-breaking insights shared in this volume, could not be more relevant.

The Ancient Near East: History, Texts, etc

The Ancient Near East:History, Texts, etc Christopher T. Begg and Isaac M. Alderman 31. [The Stela of Lady T-rp(yt)] Abdelrahman Ali Abdelrahman, "The Stela of Lady T-rp(yt) in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo," AO 39 (2, 2021) 161-66. This article studies the stela of a woman named Ta-repit, which is now housed in the basement of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. I provide a brief description of the scene depicted on the upper part of the stela and then present a transliteration and translation of the hieroglyphic inscriptions on its lower part. I conclude with some philological comments, including a proposed emendation of the name of the mother of the owner of the stela. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 32. [A "Literary" Fragment from the Istanbul Sippar Archive] Selim Ferruh Adali and Eckart Frahm, "The Slave-Girl's Child: A 'Literary' Fragment from the Istanbul Sippar Archive," AO 39 (1, 2021) 5-17. In this article, we publish a fragmentary clay tablet from the Sippar Collection in the Cuneiform Tablets Archive of the Istanbul Archaeological Museums, inventoried under the museum number Si 735. The tablet seems to record, in literary language, the ruminations of a man about a female slave who had given birth to his son. Due, however, to the tablet's poor state of preservation, many aspects of this unusual text remain unclear. After introductory remarks on the nature of the tablet and a brief discussion of the above-cited "Sippar Collection," we provide an edition of the text, together with notes on its orthography, language, structure, and genre, as well as a philological commentary. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 33. [Charles Clermont-Ganneau and the Mesha Stela] Isabel Bonora Andijar, "Charles Clermont-Ganneau et la redécouverte de la stèle de Mésha," Stèle de Mésha/Mescha-Stele, 97-138 [see #922]. A.'s historical study complements that of S. Willert (see #93) concerning the tangled story of how the Mesha Stela made its way from Dibon in ancient Moab, where it had stood for some two and a half-millennia, to its current resting place in the Louvre during the years 1868–1873. Basing herself on the archives of several Parisian institutions, A. highlights the involvement of the French consular official and epigraphist Charles Clermont-Ganneau (1846–1923) in this process, first in acquiring the pieces of the stone which had been smashed by Bedouins shortly after its discovery in situ by A. F. Klein and selling these to the Louvre and then working himself at the Louvre on the reconstruction of the stela (a project he brought to successful completion in 1875) on the basis of drawings and a tracing of the still intact artifact which he had commissioned several Arab workers to carry out prior to its destruction.—C.T.B. 34. [Babylonian Bird Omen Collections, Astral Observations and the Manzāzu] Netanel Anor and Yoram Cohen, "Bird in the Sky—Babylonian Bird Omen Collections, Astral Observations, and the Manzāzu," Revue d'assyriologie et de'archéologie orientale 115 (2021) 51-80. The purpose of our paper is to discuss Babylonian bird omen collections in order to determine how a sacrificial bird's outer physical organs might have been interpreted by the diviner as signs of potential celestial events. On this basis, we argue that the well-known term manzāzu refers to the concrete appearance of a deity as an astral body during the [End Page 10] course of an extispicy ritual. Our discussion concludes with a full edition of a bird omen compendium (YOS 10.51, YOS 10.52, and J. Nougayrol, 1967). [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] 35. [The Late Babylonian Medical Compendium Tablet, BM 32277+] András Bácskay, "Medical Treatments against Respiratory Diseases, Ear Complaints and Migraine: An Edition of a Late Babylonian Medical Compendium Tablet, BM 32277+," Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 115 (2021) 159-74. My paper presents an edition and analysis of a previously unpublished Late Babylonian medical tablet from...

Multiple Hues of Marginality and Assertion in Jokha Alharthi’s Celestial Bodies

Marginality is not only a state of tangible/physical suffering but also a condition of mind. However, the nature of both is complementary to each other as the troubled psychic state results only from material reality. The adjective ‘celestial’ in the title seems to negate any material claims to one’s deprived state as emanating from structural inequities. The marginal state of major female characters in Jokha Alharthi’s (b. 1978) the Man Booker International Prize-Winning novel Celestial Bodies (2019) has its basis in the patriarchal functioning of society. Marilyn Booth writes, “The impact of a strong patriarchal system on both women and subordinate men is unsparing but it shapes different generations, and individuals, distinctly as it leads to both suffering and confrontation” (x). All three sisters Mayya, Khawla and Asma in the Celestial Bodies have their own trajectories of hidden pain. Apart from it, marginality as observed in the case of Zarifa, the female slave who unconsciously submits herself to a better life, results from ignorance as she does not find anything appalling even in being a concubine to Merchant Sulayman, the slave owner. Another note of marginality stems in the portrayal of Habib and his son Sanjar who view slavery as an “involuntary human servitude” (Wright n.pag.) and hence break themselves free from the shackles of bondage by leaving the house of Sulayman. While the former realizes that despite being his wife, Zarifa is also his master’s keep which is a blow to his masculinity; his son also identifies selfish motives in Sulayman’s doing a few things for his betterment. Another victim of a husbandly suspicion is Fatima, the wife of Sulayman whose death remains a mystery until it is learnt that it was her husband who hastens her to a poisonous death as her affair with a slave is suspected. Mayya’s daughter London’s marginal state cements the vulnerable status of women as despite from a rich family she is treated in terms of her supposed weak gender as her voluntary marriage to a peasant’s ends in a fiasco. The present paper seeks to provide answer to different types of marginalities found in the Celestial Bodies along with charting out a course of passive to active resistance as adopted by different characters.

All For Liberty: The Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion of 1849 by Jeff Strickland

In this brief, fast-paced volume, Strickland offers a much-needed comprehensive account of the under-studied Charleston Workhouse Rebellion of 1849. This slave-led uprising and eventual escape of more than three-dozen slaves triggered new rounds of public debate about control of the city’s enslaved population. The Workhouse facility served multiple purposes—as a place for punishment and short-term imprisonment of the enslaved, as a holding facility for the enslaved craftsmen who hired out, and as a place for slaves to lodge while awaiting sale. The incident, commonly called a “riot” by presiding Charleston authorities, occurred at a critical moment: At that time, Christian paternalists in the Lowcountry were attempting to establish separate worship facilities for slaves, and a large in-migration of Irish workers had recently arrived, creating a white majority in the city. Moreover, Congress and the Charleston press were engaged in ongoing national and local debates about the expansion of slavery.Strickland weaves these several complicated narratives together through the story of Nicholas (Kelly), a skilled enslaved plasterer who became the rebellion’s unquestioned leader, and William Kelly, his owner, who allowed Nicholas to hire out in return for a handsome percentage of his earnings. In 1845, however, William took Nicholas to New Orleans, a booming center of the international cotton trade, in hopes of generating even more profit from his artisanal skill. Strickland contends that Nicholas preferred life in New Orleans, where he converted to Catholicism. Unquestionably, Nicholas grew more defiant after his return to Charleston, where he continued to speak of his faith in a just God and his willingness to face death. When William, suspecting Nicholas of withholding money, asked employment agents to search Nicholas for cash, Nicholas attacked and injured two white men working for the agency, for which he was charged. Though represented by able legal counsel, Nicholas was tried, convicted, and sentenced to death. But after the state appeals court overturned the verdict, Nicholas was retried and given a lesser sentence—confinement in the Workhouse for three years of hard labor and monthly whippings.In July 1849, when an owner came to remove his female slave from the Workhouse (her connection to Nicholas, if any, remains unclear), Nicholas resisted authorities forcefully and led the escape of thirty-seven slaves into the streets of Charleston. Authorities regrouped and quickly captured Nicholas and two other ringleaders. Nicholas was tried, convicted, and sentenced to hang with his two chief accomplices exactly one week after the incident. Other escapees sought refuge in and around Charleston, but only six remained at large by the time of Nicholas’ execution. The Workhouse rebellion and the escape of three-dozen slaves set Charleston on edge until well after the rebellion had been suppressed. A large hostile crowd threatened to tear down the new Episcopal church building (Calvary) constructed for separate slave worship. The protest forced a nearly four-month delay while a “Committee of Fifty,” appointed by the mayor, collected information from elsewhere in the South before recommending that the expanded mission to the enslaved be allowed to proceed.Strickland’s engaging narrative sheds new light on issues that challenged both Charleston and the lower South during the late antebellum era. His meticulous research in newspapers (both local and national), public records, and manuscripts tells the story of the Workhouse rebellion and its aftermath more fully than any previous account.Despite his prodigious research, however, his citations leave more than a few direct quotations unattributed in the notes. More consequentially, Strickland’s interpretation is self-contradictory on key points. He portrays slave discipline in Charleston as severe and the city as living constantly in fear of slave resistance. Yet he also gives the impression that the slaves had considerable leeway in the city: Enslaved artisans who lived in the workhouse frequently hired out, and other slaves hired out around the city, having only occasional contact with their owners and much free time on their hands. This comparative laxity of control doubtless facilitated the smooth flow of work and commerce in Charleston, but it hardly suggested a city under siege.Finally, the naming of the incident also highlights the ambiguity of the motive behind it. White contemporaries knew it as the “Workhouse riot” (paralleling modern prison riots), but it was also a rebellion of prisoners who were slaves. Escape from the Workhouse stood as its first goal. It stopped short (or authorities stopped it short) of a full-fledged insurrection. Once the enslaved prisoners escaped, however, their chief aim was to avoid recapture rather than to foment a full-scale revolt. Nonetheless, the Workhouse rebellion brought key issues regarding the future of slavery and white safety to the forefront of public life in Charleston, where they would remain for more than a decade.

Applications of the Slave-woman (Jāriya) Marriage in Pre-Islamic Arab Society and Analysis of Legal Arrangements Brought by Islam

The term of slave is generally defined ‘a person who is not free, dependent on the master, bought and sold legally, economically, and socially different from the free’. A female slave is called a concubine (jāriya). Slavery, thought to have existed throughout the history of humanity, exists in many civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece, and Rome, as well as in the pre-Islamic Arab society in the period of Jahiliyya. In those periods, abduction, crime, and economic reasons, especially captivity of war, were the main sources of slavery. The religion of Islam limited the source of slavery only to captives captured as a result of legitimate warfare. Concubines did not have most of the basic rights in the Pre-Islamic Arab society of Ignorance. All his rights were in the hands of his master. Concubines were not accepted as human beings, and they were bought and sold like goods. They were often used for prostitution to earn money for their owners in this way. It was rare for concubines to be freed. It was forbidden for a free and a slave to marry. The master of the slaves could be with any concubine he wanted. When a concubine had a child with her master, she was also considered a prisoner. If the master wanted, she would accept the child's lineage. The status of this ‘umm walad (mother of the child)’ would not change. Some concubines committed adultery with men. When they became pregnant by these men, the concubine would say that the child was from one of these men, or the qāif would annex the lineage of the child to one of the adulterous men. In the same way, the annexation of the lineage (istilhaq) was accepted when the man said that the child was his own. It was accepted as a kind of marriage in the Jahiliyya Arabs (bigā marriage). Islam has made some improvements regarding concubines' personal rights and legal status. In Islam, different practices have been envisaged that will allow the liberation of concubines encouraging marriage with concubines, the right to marry a free or slave was given. There are rules regarding the lineage of their children introduced. Prostitution was prohibited. It was stipulated that the concubine should marry in order to be with someone other than her master. The practice of annexing a child born as a result of prostitution to one of the adulterous men has been abolished, and the rule that the concubine belongs to her master has been introduced. Umm walad was given the right to be freed after his master died, and it was forbidden to sell. In this study, which we have done in order to better understand some of the provisions brought by Islam by examining the social situation at the time it came, the practices related to concubine and marriage among the Jahiliyya Arabs were examined. The data obtained by the documentation method were examined by comparison. As a result of our study, it has been determined that Islam has brought remedial regulations for enslaved women, most of whom are deprived of rights, used in prostitution, and whose marriage is accepted as embarrassing. Granting the right to marry concubines, prohibiting their use in prostitution, taking their descendants under protection, and making arrangements for them to gain their freedom can be considered in this context. The provisions and practices regarding concubines contained in the Qur'ān and the Sunnah have been elaborated by Islamic jurists over time. Conducting detailed studies on the main branches of Islamic law, such as family and criminal law related to concubines, will contribute to a better understanding of the provisions imposed by Islam. * This study is extracted from my master’s thesis titled "Concubine in Islamic Family Law" supervised by Prof. Dr. İbrahim Yılmaz (Nevşehir: Nevsehir Hacı Bektas Veli University, Social Sciences Institute Master’s Thesis, 2022).

EYYÛBİLER, BAHRİ MEMLÛKLER VE TİMUR DÖNEMİNDE HASTALIK VE ÖLÜM NEDENİYLE SADAKA VERME GELENEĞİ

İslâmiyet yoksulu maddi bakımdan iyileştirmek adına bazı kurallar ve yenilikler getirmiştir. Türkler bu kuralları kısa sürede özümsemiştir. Zira öteden beri Türk sosyal yapısının doğasında yardımlaşmak ve paylaşmak gibi değerler mevcuttur. 
 İslam’ın yoksulluğa çözüm olarak getirdiği yeniliklerden biri sadakadır. Bu yenilik, Türk kültüründe mal ületmek kavramıyla örtüşmektedir. Kaşgarlı Mahmud ve Yusuf Has Hâcib yoksullara yapılan maddi yardımları bu tabirle ifade etmiş, sürekli cömertliğe vurgu yapmışlardır. Yusuf Has Hacib ayrıca, hastalıktan kurtulmak, kötü rüyaların etkisinden korunmak, Tanrı’nın rızasını kazanmak gibi bazı durumlar için sadaka verilmesini önermiştir. Dede Korkut hikâyelerinde sadaka geçmekte olup baş ve gözün kefareti ve dileklerin gerçekleşmesi için verilmektedir.
 Türk devlet adamları uygun gördükleri her vakit sadaka dağıtmaya özen göstermiştir. Bununla birlikte bu gelenek genelde, doğum ve sünnet gibi kutlamalarda, günahlardan arınmak ve korunmak için, kutsal aylarda, dinî bayramlarda ve günlerde, kabir ziyaretlerinde, matem vakitlerinde, hastalık ve şifa zamanlarında uygulanmıştır. Ayrıca bu son iki durumda kimi hükümdarlar köle ve cariyelerini özgür kılmış, vergileri kaldırmış veya düşürmüş, borçlunun borcunu ödemiş, mahkûmları serbest bırakmıştır. Müslüman Türk hanedan üyeleri ayrıca, Mekke ve Medine fakirlerine yüklü miktarlarda pek çok sadaka göndermiş, hac yollarının bakımı, hacıların güvenliği, hacılara erzak ve su teminini gönüllü olarak üstlenmiştir
 Müslüman Türk devlet adamları gelenekte sadakanın kişiyi hastalıklardan koruduğu ve belayı def ettiği inancından ötürü hastalık vakitlerinde bu âdeti yerine getirmiştir. Eyyûbî, Memlûk ve Timur dönemi bu geleneğin yürürlükte olduğu en canlı dönemlerdendir. Eyyûbi Devleti’nin kurucusu Selahaddin Eyyûbî, kardeşi el-Âdil, el-Melikü’z-Zâhir, Hama hâkimi el-Melik el-Mansur Nâsıreddin Muhammed, El-Melikü’l Muazzam Şerefüddîn Îsâ b. el-Âdil b. Eyyûb, el-Eşref Musa b. Âdil bu geleneği uygulayan Eyyubi hükümdarlarındandır. Memlûk sultanlarından Melikü’z-Zâhir Baybars, Kalavun ve Kalavun ailesi ve emirler bu geleneği muhafaza etmiştir. Memlûk sultanları iyileştiklerinde emirleri ve diğer devlet adamları tarafından tebrik edilmiş, Kahire’de ve Mısır’da şenlikler düzenlenmiş, hilatlar dağıtılmıştır. 
 Müslüman Türk devlet adamları ölünün ruhu için sadakalar dağıtmıştır. Memlûklerde dağıtılan sadaka dışında sadakadan sayılan, cenaze önüne halk tarafından yağmalanması için kefaretler hazırlanmıştır. Timur kendi aile fertlerinin mateminde yukarıdaki gelenekleri yerine getirmiştir. Timur, oğlu Cihangir’in, kızı Tagayşah Aka Beg’in, eşi Dilşad Aga’nın, ablası Kutluk Türkan’ın ve babasının hatunu Kadak Hatun’un yaslarını tutmuş ve ruhları için yoksulara yemekler vermiş, sadakalar vermiştir. Selçuklu sultanları ve İlhanlılar da matem sırasında bu geleneği tatbik etmiştir. Müslüman Türk devlet adamları ölüm yıl dönümü nedeniyle de aynı usulleri icra etmişlerdir. Timur’un ve Şehzade Muhammed Sultan’ın ölüm yıl dönemlerinde sadakalar dağıtılmıştır.
 Biz bu çalışmada Eyyubiler, Bahri Memlûkler ve Timur dönemi temelinde Türk hanedanlıklarında hastalık ve matem zamanlarında sadaka dağıtma geleneği konusunu değerlendireceğiz.

The status of women in the Ancient East: peculiarities of marriage and family relations in Mesopotamia

The main criteria of social differentiation of women in the first state formations of the Middle Ages have been studied. The influence of religion on the formation of understanding of the place and role of women in society has been shown. Peculiarities of marriage and family relations in ancient Mesopotamia have been considered. The factors determining the social hierarchy of women in the ancient civilizations of the Biennial have been determined and analyzed. The causes of temple and street mass prostitution have been clarified. Features of the position of female slaves have been described. The work is based on the principle of historicism. When studying primary sources, comparative legal, hermeneutic methods and systematic analysis were used. The anthropological method was used when revealing the worldview of the people of that time and their values, the gender method was used when studying the status of women in the state institutions of the Middle Ages. It was concluded that the social position of women in ancient Mesopotamia was not unambiguous. Religion influenced a person's worldview, the understanding of the nature of a woman, her place and role in society. The rite of “sacred marriage” was one of the significant religious rituals, which encouraged the reproduction of similar sacred acts in worldly life, and became the ideological basis of the activity of the priests of Mezhyrechya. On the basis of the analysis of the legislation of the state institutions of the time, the purpose of marriage was determined, that is the birth and upbringing of children who were to inherit and multiply the family property and perform the necessary sacred rites, which were to help the dead in the afterlife. The inability to have children became the reason for divorce, as a rule, at the husband's will. The wife also had the right to initiate the divorce process in the municipal court, but under certain circumstances specifically defined by law. The most influential in society were the high priestesses – entum and naditum, who were related by blood to the famous families of Mesopotamia. They had wealth, broad socio-economic rights and the greatest social protection. Prostitutes and slaves were the least protected. It is noted that the origins of modern problems of gender inequality can be seen in the distant past, in the ancient world, in particular in Mesopotamia, which had a significant impact on European civilization. Women's History The Biennial provides grounds for asserting that solving the problems of gender inequality is not possible only by changing the legislation. A comprehensive approach is necessary, which would take into account such components as religion, culture, law, economy, psychology, etc.

The Changing Nature of the Domestic Service Sector in 19th-Century Istanbul

Istanbul, a power nexus in the Ottoman world, witnessed a proliferation of female child labor in domestic service over the course of the 19th century. This study shows that slave ownership and the recruitment of girl domestics were highly class-sensitive phenomena. This means that 19th-century Istanbul groups of middling economic means, who could not easily access the slave market, could recruit girl domestics with lower wages. The study claims that the rising presence of girl child labor in domestic service did not in itself bring about the immediate disappearance of domestic female slaves, as these two types of labor were not substitutes for each other in the labor market. The study also shows that a diversification in the zones supplying girls after the 1840s, as well as the rising demand for girl child labor, affected the wage levels of girls, which, however, does not appear to have had a noticeable impact on the fluctuations of prices for female slaves—both for Africans and Caucasians—and ownership.

Semantic Analysis: The Fair in Surah an-Nisa, verses 3 and 129

Justice has a general meaning and has a special meaning, including justice in society, justice in law, justice in finance, and justice in human rights. The concept of justice, which is the second principle after monotheism includes justice in various relationships, namely the relationship between the individual and himself, the relationship between the individual and humans and society, the relationship between the individual and the judge and those who own the case, and the relationship between the parties relevant. Islamic justice is comprehensive and includes economic, social, and political justice. A pattern of life that shows love, help, and a sense of responsibility, not based on a conflicting social system between one class and another as the principle of justice in Islam. The command to carry out justice finding explicitly in the Qur'an. The verses of the Qur'an command to act justly and Allah Himself makes justice the goal of government as contained in Surah An-Nisa verses 3 and 129. An-Nisa verse 3 regarding the permissibility of polygamy for husbands who have been married to carry out the requirements of being fair to the wives. If this condition cannot be fulfilled, then a man is only entitled to marry one wife only, he cannot have more or enough intercourse with his female slaves without going through the proper marriage process. Surah An-Nisa 'verse 129 talks about polygamy. However, this verse concludes that a man can never be fair in passing. The nature of 'is (fair) is a green light for a man who wants to have polygamy

Sources of Slavic Pre-Christian Religion

Sources of Slavic Pre-Christian Religion