Female Labor Research Articles

Analysing Post-Pandemic Female Labour Force Participation and Intra-Household Dynamics Through the Lens of Social Reproduction: The Indian Case

The coronavirus pandemic has adversely impacted women in both the productive and the reproductive realms of the Indian economy. While more women are observed to have lost their jobs, household and care work burden increased for all classes of women at least in the initial lockdown period. In this article, we put forth possible scenarios that can arise in the post-pandemic Indian economy regarding female labour force participation and intra-household dynamics, using social reproduction theory as our analytical framework. We posit that the pandemic will distress-drive women to participate in the labour force. Also, female formal workers who lost or quit their jobs during the crisis period may completely withdraw from the labour force if their spouses retain their jobs. Further, financial constraints can increase the incidences of spousal violence for female informal workers. Finally, social reproduction duties will intensify for female informal workers. While this can hold for female formal workers, their burden may be relieved through the hiring of domestic help.

The effect of plough agriculture on gender roles: A machine learning approach

SummaryThis paper undertakes a replication in a wide sense of a recent study that examines the relationship between historical plough agriculture and current gender roles. We revisit the main research question with recently developed causal machine learning methods, which allow researchers to model the relationship of covariates with the treatment and the outcomes in a more flexible way, while also including interactions and nonlinearities that were not considered in the original analysis. Our results suggest an even larger negative effect of the historical plough adoption on female labor force participation than what the original analysis found. The paper highlights the benefits of using causal machine learning methods in applied empirical economics.

Quota removal, gender-specific export shock, and female labor force participation in China

There is a lack of consensus on how trade liberalization affects female labor force participation (FLFP), primarily due to challenges in identifying exports of female labor-intensive products. In this study, we construct a unique gender-specific export shock by examining the removal of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement (MFA) trade quotas in 2005, which targeted the female labor-intensive textiles and clothing (T&C) industry. Using a difference-in-differences (DID) approach, we find that MFA quota removal significantly increases FLFP in China, which is attributed to the heightened demand for female labor in the T&C industry and related services. Increased demand not only boosts women incomes but also significantly reduces fertility rates. Furthermore, it disproportionately benefits four specific female groups: well-educated women, young women, unmarried women, and those without young children.

Longer school schedules, childcare and the quality of mothers’ employment

Summary Better employment quality can improve personal well-being, social cohesion, and inclusive growth and development. Yet good quality jobs – associated with greater well-being – are less accessible to women than men. While it is understood that policies balancing family and work lead to greater female labour participation, this paper investigates whether one such policy – increased childcare – improves the quality of jobs where mothers are employed. The context we analyse is a nationwide school reform in Chile that extended school schedules for primary school-aged children, providing childcare services. We combine administrative data of the phase-in of the policy with panel data of individual mothers’ employment outcomes and socio-economic characteristics. We estimate a fixed-effects model that controls for mothers’ unobserved heterogeneity and identifies the effect of the policy from plausibly exogenous temporal and spatial variations in access to schools with long schedules and exogenous exposure to the policy. We find a positive effect of childcare on several measures of employment quality and gender gaps within the couple. Our evidence suggests that the mechanism driving the impact is the implicit subsidy to the cost of childcare, affecting the opportunity cost of mothers’ time. In addition, we find heterogeneous results by mothers’ education level. Access to childcare through longer primary school schedules can increase household welfare and can play a role in reducing income and gender inequalities.

Can tourism contribute to gender equality? Evidence from South American countries

The research examines the causal relationship between tourism and gender equality for 10 South American countries in the period 2006-2019. Panel data modelling has been used to account for unobservable heterogeneity derived from time series and cross-sectional data. Estimates of the gender equality index have been made for both fixed and random effects for four models, considering as explanatory variables international tourism receipts (% of exports) which were kept constant in each of the estimates, in addition to real GDP per capita (model 2), education expenditures (model 3) and female labor participation in agriculture, industry and services (model 4). Based on the estimates we selected, through the Hausman test, those with fixed effects in three of the four models, which were corrected for the presence of autocorrelation and heteroskedasticity problems. The results show that tourism has a positive and significant effect on gender equality. With respect to the control variables, education expenditure and GDP per capita are found to be statistically significant, showing a direct relationship with gender equality, similarly to international tourism receipts. An inverse relationship is identified between gender equality and women's labor participation in agriculture and services.

Sustainability of Production in Melon Growing Farms: The Case of Hatay Province

The aim of this study is to reveal the functioning and sustainability of melon producing farms in Hatay province. In the research, a face-to-face survey was conducted with 50 melon farmers in Hatay province. Additionally, the problems and disruptions encountered in melon production were identified in the study. Female labor is used extensively in melon production. In 2022, it was determined that women working in melon cultivation work for a daily wage of ₺150 (approximately $9). In 2021, 1 638 638 tons of melons were produced in an area of 668 753 ha in Türkiye. In Hatay, 32 537 tons of melons were produced from 13 230 decares of cultivation area. In addition, Kırıkhan melon received a geographical indication. Kırıkhan melon is a product that attracts attention in terms of taste and aroma. Melon prices follow a fluctuating trend during the production season. Input costs are also a serious problem in melon production. The average melon production cost was ₺10692 (approximately $590) for 1 decare. High costs threaten the sustainability of small family farms in production. As a result, farmers need to be supported and encouraged for production. Otherwise, melon production will be abandoned by small family farms. In this regard, it is important to increase training and publication activities.

The demographical and economic factors affecting female labor force participation in Saudi Arabia

The female labor force participation holds significant implications for various aspects of society, the economy, and individual lives. Understanding its significance involves recognizing the multifaceted impact of women’s participation in the workforce. In this context, the current study investigates the factors influencing the female labor force participation rate in Saudi Arabia while using a set of independent variables such as GDP growth, employment-to-population ratio, inflation, urban population growth, tertiary school enrollment, labor force with advanced education, fertility rate, and age dependency ratio, covering a period from 2000 to 2022. The results reveal that the employment-to-population ratio, inflation rate, urbanization, and age dependency ratio have positive and statistically significant impacts on the female labor force participation rate. This research offers valuable insights for formulating policies to foster female empowerment and overcome the obstacles that hinder their economic participation.

Trade and Inequality-considerations of the Gini Coefficient, Female Employment, Natural Resources, and Economic Growth

With the deepening development of globalization and world trade, the gap between human individuals has been paid more and more attention by researchers in the field of economic and social sciences. However, a large body of literature focuses on the inequality caused by trade and globalization, while relatively ignoring other inequality factors, such as women's participation in the work force, especially in developing countries with low international influence. This paper refers to the exports of goods and services (% of GDP), the Gini coefficient, the share of female labor force in the total labor force, natural resource rental income (% of GDP), the natural logarithm of GDP per capita (economic growth) of 20 different developing countries with the highest trade volume in the world. The interrelation of exports of goods and services, as a percent of GDP, to the latter four is analyzed. A multiple regression model was set up. The model results show that a country's export of goods and services is not significantly correlated with the Gini coefficient, indicating that trade does not directly cause the expansion of a country's income gap; As the trade volume is significantly positively correlated with the number of female labor force, it indicates that the expansion of trade makes more women participate in the work force. For some countries, exports of goods and services are significantly and positively related to the country's natural resource rental income, while for some countries they are not. The export of goods and services has a significantly positive correlation effect on a country's economic growth.

Female Engagement in Asian Workforce: Exploring the Impact of ICT

The labor market in Asian countries has both challenges and opportunities for women to participate in the work force. The aim of this article is to investigate the association of ICT, female education, and fertility with the female labor force participation in 48 Asian countries from 2014 to 2021 in fixed effect model. The results reveal that there is positive and significant association of internet use with female labor force participation, whereas there is a negative relationship between mobile phone usage and female labor force participation which is only significant at ten percent. Similarly, the control variables, GDP and female secondary school enrollment have also positive relationship with female labor force participation. The fertility rate has negative association with female labor force participation. Furthermore, it is found that ICT has significantly affected to female labor participation in Central Asia and South-Eastern Asia. The findings of this article explain that the ICT has increased female labor force participation, their empowerments and returns in the Asian countries. However, it is applicable for the appropriate policies of ICT usage in such a way that it not only increases female labor force participation but also increases the productivity of female workforce. The policy makers should increase the skill-oriented applications in both mobile applications and internet browsers. There should be restrictions on certain applications in the devices which reduce work productivity thereby assuring increase in female labor force participation.

Does FDI encourage female labor force participation? Evidence from Arab countries

Does FDI encourage female labor force participation? Evidence from Arab countries

Structural characteristics and non-linear fiscal multipliers

We identify structural characteristics of economies which determine the fiscal multipliers in normal times. We find that structural variables determine fiscal multipliers in a non-linear fashion where fiscal multipliers change significantly across the threshold of structural variables. Using the recently developed Panel Latent Threshold Model, we identify latent groups of countries intrinsic to the structural characteristics of the variables. Results suggest that improvement in human development and financial infrastructure measures play a prominent role in enhancing the fiscal multiplier effects across the economies. We also find that economies can achieve higher fiscal multipliers by keeping a check on the import propensity. We identify female labour force participation as one of the significant structural determinants of the fiscal multiplier, where many latent groups find parallels with the declining portion of the feminisation U-shaped hypothesis. Overall, the results suggest that countries should pursue targeted structural change-oriented fiscal policy to achieve higher economic growth.

The protective and destructive critical processes of female labor in small-scale fishing in coast Pernambuco, Brazil.

This study aims to analyze the protective and destructive critical processes of 34 water women in the municipalities of Cabo de Santo de Agostinho and Ipojuca, Pernambuco, Brazil, from February/21 to August/22. The work process stages were systematized by the work flowchart, and we employed Breilh's critical processes matrix to organize the data. The destructive processes identified in the general domain were injustice and socio-environmental vulnerability, such as the economic development model, the Suape Industrial Port Complex, the 2019 oil spill crime disaster, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the difficult access to public policies; in the particular domain: overloads and extended working hours, use of rudimentary equipment and tools, and unequal gender, class, and race relationships; in the singular domain: physical and mental illnesses and deaths. The protective processes identified in the general domain were sustainable development objectives, public health, and social assistance policies; in the particular domain, group work and processing, consumption for subsistence; in the singular domain, fishing as a therapeutic, pleasurable, and sharing process. The study highlighted the central issues of the water women and the need to establish public policies targeting their care.

THE IMPACT OF MICRO FINANCE SERVICES ON WOMEN'S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT; EVIDENCE FROM KURUNEGALA DISTRICT IN SRI LANKA

Women's economic empowerment has become one of the most pressing concerns in the world as empowering women economically, can make a significant contribution to the expansion of the economy and their immediate families to maintain a sustainable way of life. The concept of microfinance has developed as a tool to obtain both financial and non-financial support for poor people's self-empowerment. Women who come from low-income families are given the ability to make a valuable contribution to the economy through the use of microfinance. In the Sri Lankan context, female labor force participation is comparatively at a lower level, and thus more women are economically inactive. Therefore, microfinance services are vital to low-income women in both rural and urban areas. Due to the vitality of this aspect, this research aims to examine the impact of microcredit, micro saving, financial training, and advisory services on women's economic empowerment in Sri Lanka. The population used in this research is microfinance women beneficiaries in Kurunegala District, and the researcher selected 380 microfinance women beneficiaries as the sample size of this study using random sampling technique. Data collection was conducted using structured, self-administered, web-based questionnaires and personal interviews, where the data set was analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis. The results of this research show that microcredit, micro savings, financial training, and advisory services significantly and positively impact women's economic empowerment. Accordingly, the researcher recommends microfinance institutions to increase the granting of microcredit facilities to poor women in the Kurunagala district, as these institutions have given less loan amounts than applied. Also, it is recommended to reduce interest rates and increase payback periods, as high interest rates are an additional burden on the customers. Furthermore, the government should pay more attention to these low-income women and conduct some programs to improve their knowledge and careers. Meanwhile, microfinance institutions should improve their management capacity and strive to reach out to women in need to enhance their economic empowerment and improve their contribution to the workforce and economy.

“When Jobs Are Scarce”

Abstract This study examines the influence of Islam on attitudes toward female labor force participation as reflected in responses to the World Values Survey (WVS) question: “When jobs are scarce, should men have more right to a job than women?”. The authors expect that respondents in Islamic (Muslim-majority) countries will have more positive attitudes toward this statement than respondents in non-Islamic countries. They test the hypothesis that the higher the percentage of Muslims in a given country, the more likely respondents are to agree with this statement. The correlation is in the predicted direction, statistically significant and quite strong. Meanwhile, tests show that respondents in Arab countries show particularly strong support for this statement (significantly stronger than in non-Arab Muslim-majority countries). Based on this, the authors try to discuss possible determinants of such attitudes. Particular support is observed in Arab countries and those non-Arab countries that have experienced a strong Arab influence. These countries can be identified with the Umayyad Caliphate in the past and may have been particularly influenced by non-Islamic elements of Arab culture that are not directly related to Islam.

India’s Missing Female Youth Labour Force: Size, Characteristics and Policy Concern

India’s Missing Female Youth Labour Force: Size, Characteristics and Policy Concern

Digital Infrastructure Construction and Improvement of Non-Farm Employment Quality of Rural Labor Force—From the Perspective of Informal Employment

The pivotal role of digital infrastructure as hardware support for fostering economic efficiency in the digital economy is widely acknowledged. However, it begs the question, can the development of digital infrastructure also advance social equity, particularly concerning horizontal equity, as exemplified by the quality of non-farm employment among rural laborers, which serves as a barometer for the fairness and inclusivity of the social opportunity landscape? This article delves into the ramifications of digital infrastructure development on the quality of non-farm employment for rural laborers. Initially, it conducts a theoretical exploration of the impact and mechanisms of digital infrastructure construction on non-farm employment quality within rural labor sectors, drawing upon the Todaro model framework and existing scholarly discourse. Subsequently, by integrating data on digital infrastructure construction at the prefecture-level city level with four periods of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) data spanning 2014 to 2020, employing various endogenous treatment methods including two-way fixed effects, sensitivity analysis, and instrumental variable techniques, it empirically tests and analyzes the internal mechanisms. The findings reveal that digital infrastructure construction plays a beneficial role in enhancing the quality of non-farm employment for rural laborers, encompassing both subjective perceptions and objective circumstances of non-farm work. Notably, it is observed that digital infrastructure construction significantly fosters improvements in the quality of informal employment among rural laborers, with notable disparities across gender and skill levels. This discovery exerts a positive influence on advancing the sustainable development of the labor market. Specifically, female rural laborers necessitate higher skill proficiency and educational attainment to attain commensurate benefits as their male counterparts. Moreover, caution is warranted regarding the potential for digital infrastructure construction to exacerbate existing power differentials and widen socioeconomic disparities through the perpetuation of the digital divide.

Feed the children, free the women? Evidence from the China rural nutrition improvement program

This study establishes a causal impact of China Rural Nutrition Improvement Program (CRNIP) on the labour force participation of Chinese rural mothers, utilizing quasi-exogenous variation in the timing of program implementation across the country. Drawing on 1% samples of the 2010 and 2015 Chinese Population Censuses, we find that the CRNIP, which provided free lunch meals to students during their compulsory education, significantly enhanced maternal labour force participation by an estimated 4.25 percentage points, while showing no effects for fathers. The provision of school lunches reduced the time mothers spent on childcare, primarily benefiting less-educated mothers, who opted for informal, off-farm work in their local area. While only small in magnitude, this finding has significant policy implications for a country facing a declining population in general, and declining female labour force participation in particular.

К вопросу о труде и образовании женщин на страницах журналов «Женский вестник» и «Женщина и война» в конце XIX – начале XX в.

Women’s right to work and education was formed under the influence of life realities and socio-political events of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Women’s magazines served as a conduit for conveying the political interests of women, where they could learn about the prevalent issue of inequality in society and potential avenues for addressing it. These publications featured stories of women’s oppression in employment, wage disparities, and admission to higher educational institutions. Prior to the 1917 revolution, attitudes towards female labor in Russian society underwent numerous transformations, with working alongside men becoming a vital necessity for women. The exigencies of the First World War greatly contributed to the demand for labor, prompting many women to join the workforce and serve on the front lines as nurses and volunteers, fulfilling their duty to the Motherland. In conclusion, the narrative of women’s rights to labor and education in late Imperial Russia reflects a complex interplay of societal shifts and historical contingencies. As we reflect on this historical trajectory, it is imperative to recognize the ongoing struggle for gender equality and the enduring legacy of women’s activism in shaping the contours of society.

Illegal Sri Lankan Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Gulf Countries: An Analysis on Push and Pull Factors

The implementation of new restrictions by the Government of Sri Lanka to discourage unskilled female labour migration through the mandatory ‘Family Background Report’ has resulted in an increase in the number of female illegal migrations. This study efforts to uncover the reasons that motivate women to migrate as domestic workers disregarding the government’s strong discouragement. I argue that gendered push factors coupled with financial motivations trigger illegal and circular migration among women. This explorative research utilizes primary data collected through structured interviews from a sample of sixty-five migrant women which is complemented by secondary data collected from statistics and reports published by the Government of Sri Lanka. The research concludes that government’s inability to address strong push factors that motivates unskilled female labour migration, and its effort to use blanket solutions such as restricting movements through laws have forced women to migrate using illegal measures which makes their situation more vulnerable. It also suggests that affirmative action such as to create more occupational opportunities and the equal distribution of resources to rural areas to address this issue is needed.

Unpaid work, paid work and gender inequality: An analysis of time transfer accounts for Turkey

AbstractThis paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the total (market and non-market) gender-based production and consumption activities of Turkish men and women at different stages of their life-cycle. Turkey, one of the few emerging economies within the OECD, offers an interesting case-study as its female labour force participation rate is one of the lowest among OECD countries. Our results show that time spent by Turkish women on household activities is, on average, 30 h a week, basically three times as much as men. In fact, the women-to-men time use ratio for unpaid work is roughly twice as much as the OECD average. We estimate that the monetary value of women unpaid household production exceeds 29% of GDP, while the corresponding estimate for men is around 8%. Using the concept of life-cycle deficit, we also show that Turkish men are dependent on housework undertaken by women over their entire lifetime, which is an almost unique feature in comparison to the European and OECD countries. Finally, unlike other OECD countries that have introduced disincentives to early retirement, Turkish men continue to retire early but retain their acquired habits of not sharing the burden of household work.