Female Labor Research Articles

‘A fine spirit of comradeship’: class, sisterhood, hope, and solidarity in the Woman Worker, 1907–1910

ABSTRACT In the first decade of the twentieth century, very few of London’s women workers were organized in trade unions. In contemporary discourse, female labourers appear alternately as bad workers, ‘natural blacklegs,’ ‘masculine,’ and immodest. Women union leaders sought to resolve these discursive tensions between work and femininity by framing collective action as a collaborative project defined by sisterhood. This article interrogates their efforts by examining the discourse of sisterhood in the trade journal, the Woman Worker. It demonstrates that outsid observers defined working-class women’s lives in terms of misery and poverty as well as female camaraderie and solidarity. Industrial women workers, on the other hand, imagined more expansive worlds for themselves and their families. Their published stories and their actions depict a range of affective experiences, from joy and desire to frustration, disappointment, and ambivalence. By highlighting the female labourer, this article recentres emotions, workers’ subjectivity, and women’s individual stories in historical narratives about gender, work, and Britain’s early labour movement.

Silicon caregivers: a multilevel analysis of European perspectives on robotic technologies for elderly care

ABSTRACT As populations age, women's workforce participation grows and AI advances, understanding attitudes towards care technologies becomes increasingly important. This study examines attitudes towards robot caregivers for older adults across 28 European countries, using 2017 Eurobarometer data from working-age adults (20–59; n = 13,839). We investigate how individual characteristics (gender, education, occupation) and local-level factors (GDP, female labour participation, over 65s as % of the population, spending on old age) are associated with comfort levels with domestic care robots. The results show that men, individuals with higher levels of educational attainment, and those in professional or managerial occupations report greater comfort with robot caregivers. Additionally, local context plays a significant role. Those living in local communities with higher female employment rates and lower spending on old-age support demonstrate higher acceptance of robotic care solutions. These findings highlight the dual influence of individual and community factors in shaping attitudes towards automated care technologies.

Sex crime rate and female labour force participation in South Africa

ABSTRACT South Africa's high violent crime rates and associated fears of victimisation are known to affect residents' everyday decision-making. Rape and sex crimes (which predominantly target women), compounded by social stigma and high HIV-contraction risks, thus plays an influencing factor in a woman's life. At the same time, South Africa's gender participation gap exceeds the Sub-Saharan African average. The first of its kind in the South African context, this study uses panel data to assess the impact of district municipality sex crime rates on female labour force participation (FLFP). It improves on similar studies performed in other country contexts methodologically by highlighting the mediating effect of education in the relationship between sex crime rate and FLFP. The negative significant relationship between district sex crime rates and FLFP is found to be robust to the inclusion of a wide variety of controls and several instrumental variable specifications, with adverse impacts on education emerging as a mediating factor. The analysis points to an underrated cost of sex crimes in South Africa, especially on women. The risk-averting behaviour extends beyond victims themselves to women in the general population who, perceiving a high risk of victimisation, face restricted freedoms, worse educational and economic outcomes.

Unintended consequences of maternity leave entitlements on female labor market outcomes in China

This study provides the first empirical evidence of the impact of maternity leave entitlements on labor market outcomes for women of childbearing age in urban China. We exploit a reform during which approximately two-thirds of the provinces in China extended their leave entitlements from 2014 to 2016 and employ a triple-difference strategy to deal with the identification. The results suggest unintended effects, as leave entitlement extensions led to a reduction in the likelihood of working, formal employment, and wage for women of childbearing age relative to their counterparts. We further establish that greater reliance on employer liability may be the main mechanism behind the unintended effects, highlighting the importance of payment schemes. This study provides novel evidence and mechanisms for the labor market effect of maternity leave in women of childbearing age and provides new insights for maternity leave related policy designs.

A comparative analysis of variants of machine learning and time series models in predicting women’s participation in the labor force

Labor force participation of Egyptian women has been a chronic economic problem in Egypt. Despite the improvement in the human capital front, whether on the education or health indicators, female labor force participation remains persistently low. This study proposes a hybrid machine-learning model that integrates principal component analysis (PCA) for feature extraction with various machine learning and time-series models to predict women’s employment in times of crisis. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms, such as support vector machine (SVM), neural network, K-nearest neighbor (KNN), linear regression, random forest, and AdaBoost, in addition to popular time series algorithms, including autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) and vector autoregressive (VAR) models, have been applied to an actual dataset from the public sector. The manpower dataset considered gender from different regions, ages, and educational levels. The dataset was then trained, tested, and evaluated. For performance validation, forecasting accuracy metrics were constructed using mean squared error (MSE), root mean squared error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), mean absolute percent error (MAPE), R-squared (R2), and cross-validated root mean squared error (CVRMSE). Another Dickey-Fuller test was performed to evaluate and compare the accuracy of the applied models, and the results showed that AdaBoost outperforms the other methods by an accuracy of 100%. Compared to alternative works, our findings demonstrate a comprehensive comparative analysis for predicting women’s participation in different regions during an economic crisis.

A Gendered Double Movement? Income Security and Family Policy Dynamics Over Three Decades

Over the past decades, social policy in OECD countries has experienced significant shifts in family and income security policies. This article investigates these changes from a feminist political economy perspective and argues how they give rise to a gendered double movement. The double movement results from increased (re)commodification combined with rising individualisation, which has a dual effect: it releases women from familial duties while simultaneously commodifying female labour. By integrating the concepts of familisation, individualisation, decommodification and (re)commodification, this analysis examines data from 17 OECD countries between 1985 and 2010 regarding three aspects: the extent of shifts towards individualisation and (re)commodification in welfare states, the identification of distinct welfare state types based on these dimensions, and their consistency over time. The findings show a trend towards increased (re)commodifying policies from 1985 to 1995 and a rise in individualising policies from the late 1990s. By using a cluster analysis with a longitudinal perspective based on four dimensions, six different types of welfare states can be identified, highlighting both stability and shifts. Notably, shifts mostly occur in the same direction, moving towards an optional familialistic/individualistic flexicurity, which combines strong familising and individualising family policies with de- and (re)commodifying income security policies.

The Socioeconomic Impact of Fertility Rates on Nigeria's Development: A Policy Perspective

This paper explores the socioeconomic impact of Nigerias high fertility rate and its influence on the countrys economic development. With a fertility rate of 5.14 children per woman in 2022, far exceeding the global average, Nigeria faces significant demographic challenges. The analysis focuses on three critical data points: fertility rate, female tertiary education rate, and female labor force participation rate. The findings highlight how cultural factors, educational attainment, and labor market participation contribute to sustained high fertility rates, particularly in rural areas. Additionally, the paper examines how these factors exacerbate gender inequality and limit economic opportunities for women, thereby hindering Nigeria's overall economic progress. Policy recommendations include promoting female education and workforce participation to help manage population growth and stimulate economic development.

Influence of Women Head of Government on the Human Capital of Women in the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam

Purpose: This study aims to explore the influence of women heads of government on human capital development and gender inequality, specifically focusing on education and health in the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam from 1991 to 2021. Despite the increasing presence of women in leadership roles globally, their impact on human capital indicators remains underexplored. Methodology: To investigate this, the research employs a comparative approach that includes the Levin-Lin Chu Test, Im-Pesaran-Shin Test, Fixed Effects, Random Effects, and Ordinary Least Squares to analyze data from countries with female leaders and evaluate changes in educational attainment and health outcomes during their tenures. Findings: The findings reveal that while higher educational attainment among women and increased representation of women in political leadership do not automatically result in greater labor force participation, female life expectancy has a significant and positive effect on female labor force participation (FLFP), indicating that healthier women are more likely to engage in the workforce. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy This research uniquely contributes to understanding the role of female leadership in fostering inclusive growth and emphasizes the importance of gender representation in political leadership for advancing human capital.

The Complex Relationship Between Education And Female Labour: The Curious Case Of India

It is widely believed that improvement in education access leads to better employment statistics. India has defied this basic assumption when it comes to its Female Labour Participation Ratio. Despite the increase in education access across India, why has there not been a proportional increase of women in the labour market participation ratio. Though the Indian government claims to have taken active steps towards a safer and more inclusive environment for women through empowerment schemes and improving education access to girls and women, the data regarding the number of females in the workforce speaks otherwise. In 2024, only 36 percent of the labour force are women, and it is showing even further decline in some pockets. This research analyses the reasons for the astounding inverse relationship between education advancements in terms of accessibility and women’s participation rate. It also touches upon the ground impact of key policy decisions taken by the government in this regard.

Informality and Female Labor Income Share

This paper presents original evidence to enhance understanding of the nexus between the informal sector and the economic well-being of women. Women encountering substantial obstacles in accessing formal employment opportunities tend to gravitate towards informal sector employment, which is characterized by lower productivity, lower wages, restricted access to credit and training, and an absence of social security coverage. Using two novel datasets of the size of the informal economy and female labor income share of 148 countries for the period 1991-2018, we show that while informality is associated with lower female labor income share in general, the results vary significantly with respect to countries with different income groups and development level. While there is not generally a significant and consistent association in high-income countries, the correlation is significantly negative in low-income countries and positive in middle-income ones.

Contemporary Demographic and Economic Processes in Russia: A Statistical Analysis of Their Interaction

The article analyses the relationships between economic and demographic processes in contemporary Russia.Using index analysis, the author concluded that, in 2006–2018, a decline in the working-age population would have reduced, ceteris paribus, almost one-third of the GDP growth rate if the negative impact of this factor had not been fully compensated by an increase in the employment rate of the working-age population during this period. Growth of fertility in 2007–2015 would have led, if the influence of the situation on the labor market was eliminated, to a decrease in the number of employees by 1.2% (caused by the decline in female labor force participation rate), while fertility decrease after 2015 would have led to an increase in this number by 0.4%. Based on this estimation, it was concluded that the changes in fertility can, in the short term, have any significant impact on employment only in those types of economic activity in which the women of reproductive age make up the overwhelming majority of the employees.It has been suggested that the accumulation of socio-psychological prerequisites for a decline in fertility has led the demographic system, both in Western countries and in Russia, into a state of unstable equilibrium. The global financial crises of 2008–2009 and the 2014–2015 financial crisis in Russia upset this equilibrium and launched a mechanism for fertility decline. It is argued that in the period under consideration, the Russian economy adapted to the turbulence of the external environment more successfully than the demographic sphere

Exploring Education-Induced Bargaining Power of Women on Household Welfare in Sub-Saharan Africa

Women’s education and empowerment have engaged the interest of policymakers and academics for many years. We employ individual-level data from Ghana and Uganda in this paper to offer a comparative analysis of the impact of women’s education and empowerment on six household welfare indicators: child labor, child school enrollment, female labor force participation, fertility rate, household food expenditure, and nutrition intake. Comparing the two countries is insightful due to their distinct socio-economic structures and cultural contexts, which might influence the dynamics of women’s empowerment differently. The study utilizes the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Instrumental Variables (IV) regressions and provides a battery of robustness tests. The empirical results show that in a household, the woman’s and man’s education levels are significant determinants of household welfare. However, contrary to common assumptions, the woman’s education does not have a stronger effect than the man’s, and her relative bargaining position has negligible effects on the welfare indicators studied, at least for the cases of Ghana and Uganda. Further sensitivity checks support these findings, suggesting that female education can improve household welfare, but its impact may not necessarily operate through enhanced bargaining power within the household.

Leaving No One Behind: Examining the effect of financial, gender, and digital inclusion on sustainable development

AbstractThis paper analyzes the effects of different dimensions of inclusion toward the attainment of sustainable development in 33 sub‐Saharan African (SSA) countries from the financial, gender, and technological perspectives between 2004 and 2021. This study employs the System Generalized Method of Moments given its ability to address potential endogeneity issues, capture the dynamic nature of relationships, and mitigate potential biases while adopting the Driscoll–Kraay standard errors for robustness check. Findings reveal two of the three measures of financial inclusion wield positive and significant effects on sustainable development while credit to the private sector is found to be detrimental. Also, all three measures of gender inclusion (female employment to population, female labor force participation rate, and the number of women holding a seat in parliament) positively influence sustainable development. Contrastingly, the coefficients of digital inclusion (mobile phone subscription and internet usage) were revealed to be harmful to sustainable development in SSA. This paper advocates for increased financial inclusion through financial literacy, customized financial products, and gender‐sensitive financial services. Pertinent are gender policies that address gender norms in addition to the enactment, avowed commitment, and support for affirmative action toward closing gender gaps across all sectors and at all levels.

Transforming public health and economic outcomes by reducing risky behaviors: the potential for South Korea

South Korea faces a diminishing workforce driven by the world's lowest fertility rate, restrictive immigration, and low female labor participation. This paper explores reducing non-communicable diseases from risky behaviors as a solution. We investigate how many cases could be prevented if South Koreans changed risky consumption patterns, and the associated economic healthcare burden impact. Utilizing the Preventable Risk Integrated Model (PRIME), we model hypothetical 2022 reductions in tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy diet risks to estimate disease case and economic cost impacts. We contrast actual 2022 consumption against a moderate harm reduction scenario. Findings reveal potentially preventing approximately 73,400 new non-communicable disease cases, 69% among working-age Koreans, benefiting the workforce. This reduction could save $13 billion from avoided treatment costs, absenteeism, and premature deaths, including $3.7 billion in 2022 and $9.3 billion in future economic losses. The study emphasizes needing a harm reduction regulatory approach balancing public health and societal realities. We advocate risk-proportionate taxation policies incentivizing consumers toward less harmful alternatives. Given government responsibilities preserving both public health and productivity, smart regulation of risky consumption is critical. This timely research quantifies the significant potential gains from strategic interventions on key risk factors, informing policymakers navigating health promotion and economic objectives.

Labor income gap by gender in the Dominican Republic: An analysis of its evolution in the period 2000–2021

The labor income gap between men and women in Latin America remains a barrier to achieving gender equality and sustainable development. In the Dominican Republic, this gap is particularly prevalent in the informal sector, among self employed workers, and in regions with higher female labor participation. Despite women often having a better job profile than men, the gap persists, pointing to the presence of gender biases. This paper aims to analyze the gender-based labor income gap in the Dominican Republic from 2000 to 2021, using data from the National Labor Force Surveys conducted by the National Statistics Office (ONE) and harmonized by the Inter- American Development Bank (IDB). Two models are employed for this analysis: the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition and the Ñopo decomposition. The primary contribution of this paper lies in its long-term analysis of the gap, which provides insight into how it has evolved over time. The findings reveal a significant and statistically substantial labor income gap that cannot be explained by factors such as work experience or economic sector, suggesting that the causes are likely normative or discriminatory. The gap is most pronounced in the informal sector, among self-employed workers, and in regions with higher female labor participation. Although the analysis spans two decades, no clear trend of increase or decrease in the gap was observed. However, the unexplained portion of the gap has widened considerably, indicating a need for further investigation to understand and address this disparity.

Research on the impact of land rights certification on farmers’ operating behavior

This article aims to assess the impact of issuing land rights certification on farmers' operating behavior. To accomplish this objective, this paper establishes a theoretical framework for farmers' management behavior and thoroughly examines the stability, endowment, and security effects of land rights certification. Subsequently, using household survey data, the Probit and propensity score matching (PSM) estimation methods are employed to empirically substantiate the influence of farmland ownership confirmation. The verification results show that land right confirmation tends to motivate farmers to engage in agricultural management, and encourages female and older laborers to be more involved in agricultural production compared to males and younger laborers. Furthermore, the paper explores the mechanism by introducing such indicators as investment in agricultural machinery, quality of cultivated land, non-agricultural income of farmers, and laborers’ insurance status. Through analysis and testing, this paper holds that land right confirmation has a dual impact on farmer management, and when the reverse effect is limited, farmers are prompted to adjust the contradiction through labor force allocation within the family.

Constraints on Female Labor Force Participation in Qatar: Understanding the Effects of Marriage, Family, and Traditional Values

Abstract This paper examines constraints to female labor force participation in Qatar, a country where state revenue from natural resource rents means any citizen can secure a public sector job should they seek employment. Using data from an original survey and focus groups, we find that although Qataris are generally in support of female labor force participation – both in principle and for their own relatives – concerns remain about the impact of women working for marriage, family, and traditional values. These concerns may be especially salient for younger Qatari men – a constituency particularly impacted by erosion of traditional gender norms at a time when they are establishing their own households. We also find that Qataris with a larger percentage of male children tend to be less supportive of women working outside of the home, suggesting forms of family-level variation in investment in patriarchal values and child rearing practices.

‘Mindfulness for modern life’: The blending of Orientalism and neoliberal self-care strategies in the branding of Rituals

This article interrogates the conflation of neoliberal imperatives to self-care and Orientalist fascination with Eastern spirituality in the branding of Rituals, the Dutch self-care and cosmetics brand. Focusing on the brand’s online presence as well as its self-presentation through its flagship store, the article contextualises the Ritual’s calls for mindfulness, gratitude and positivity within the neoliberal ‘psychological turn’. At the same time, it demonstrates how the brand mobilises Orientalist and neocolonial discourses to incite its consumers to exercise emotional self-control and self-care. Neocolonial and neoliberal narratives in the branding of Rituals serve to portray the brand as the site of pleasure, quiet and calm, disguising its exigency for female labour and depoliticising the issue of global inequalities.

Gender inequality in time allocation across life stages: a comparative study in a Latin American country

ABSTRACT The study analyzes gender differences in time use in the Latin American context, from a comparative perspective (2010–2019) and across life stages. Particularly, the study presents evidence on the likelihood of women and men spending time on three types of activities: Household work, paid work activities, and personal activities. Logistic regression was applied using data from time use surveys conducted in Peru in 2010 and 2019. The results suggests that women were much more likely to spend additional time on household work, while men were more likely to spend additional time on paid work and personal activities. However, these differences became less pronounced in 2019. In terms of age groups, a U-shaped and an inverted U-shaped pattern were found for paid work activities and household chores respectively. In both cases, the largest gender gap was found in the 30–39 age group, possibly related to motherhood. The originality of the research lies in providing a comprehensive analysis of gender inequality in time use in a developing country that has one of the highest rates of female labor force participation in the region, and is also characterized by a patriarchal structure in which machismo and marianismo influence time distribution.

The determinants of gender spillovers in FDI: An analysis of Namibia

This paper examines the effect of foreign firm characteristics on FDI spillovers in Namibia, with a specific focus on gender spillover, as an additional measure to total labour spillover. Also, the possible differing spillovers in the manufacturing and services firms are investigated. Using data from the World Bank Enterprise Survey for 2006 and 2014, the paper finds that the gender spillover is significantly influenced by four variables; sector, firm age, transport challenges, and supply-chain finance. Relative to the services sector, firms in the manufacturing sector are found to significantly drive gender spillovers due to a probable preference for females “nimble fingers”, perceived obedience, and lower wages. However, the paper documents that older firms, especially those in the manufacturing sector, negatively impact gender spillovers. Also, transport challenges are shown to drive gender spillovers. This result arises from the possibility that they impose an opportunity cost, whereby, firms may defer investing in female labour due to lower perceived wages to compensate for high transport costs. Finally, we document a negative influence of supply-chain finance on gender spillovers, arising from possible labour cuts as MNCs outsource jobs in the supply chain.