Female-dominated Occupations Research Articles

Gender differences in socioeconomic inequality of alcohol-attributable mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

The present analysis contributes to understanding the societal distribution of alcohol-attributable harm by investigating socioeconomic inequality and related gender differences in alcohol-attributable mortality. A systematic literature search was performed on Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and ETOH from their inception until February 2013. Articles were included when they reported data on alcohol-attributable mortality by socioeconomic status (SES), operationalised as education, occupation, employment status or income. Gender-specific relative risks (RR) comparing low with high SES were pooled using random effects meta-analyses. Gender differences were additionally investigated in random effects meta-regressions. Nineteen articles from 14 countries were included. For women, significant RRs across all measures of SES, except employment status, were found, ranging between 1.75 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.21-2.54; occupation] and 4.78 (95% CI 2.57-8.87; income). For men, all measures of SES showed significant RRs ranging between 2.88 (95% CI 2.45-3.40; income) and 12.25 (95% CI 11.45-13.10; employment status). While RRs for men were in general slightly higher, only for occupation this gender difference was above chance (P = 0.01). Results refer to deaths 100% attributable to alcohol. The results are predominantly based on data from high-income countries, limiting generalisability. Alcohol-attributable mortality is strongly distributed to the disadvantage of persons with a low SES. Marked gender differences in this inequality were found for occupation. Possibly male-dominated occupations of low SES were more strongly related to risky drinking cultures compared with female-dominated occupations of the same SES.

Working in gender-dominated occupations and depressive symptoms: findings from the two age cohorts of the lidA study

Gender-specific differences in the frequency of depression to the disadvantage of women have been known for decades. In Germany, there is evidence that the prevalence of mental disorders also differs by occupation. The present study investigates whether for women working in male-dominated occupations and for men working in female-dominated occupations is related to depressive symptoms independently from other factors like work stress and work-family conflict. Special attention is paid to gender differences. Moreover, women are distinguished according to their working time (full-time or not). We use data from the first wave of the lidAstudy for our analyses. We make use of the applied Beck Depression Inventory, the effort-reward imbalance scales as well as the work-family conflict scale. Occupational gender segregation is defined as a share of 80 % of men and women per occupation, respectively. For women, the results of the multivariate analyses show an independent relationship between depressive symptoms and working in male-dominated occupations. Furthermore, significant interactions between occupational gender segregation and work stress are observed in both men and women regarding depressive symptoms.

Instrumentality and Expressiveness at Work

Men’s professional work roles require different attributes according to the gender-typicality of their occupation (female- versus male-dominated). We predicted that levels of men’s strain and job satisfaction would be predicted by levels of self-ascribed instrumental and expressive attributes. Therefore, we tested for positive effects of instrumentality for men in general, and instrumentality in interaction with expressiveness for men in female-dominated occupations in particular. Data were based on a survey of 213 men working in female-dominated occupations and 99 men working in male-dominated occupations. We found instrumentality to be negatively related to men’s strain and positively related to their job satisfaction. We also found expressiveness of men in female-dominated occupations to be related to reduced strain when instrumentality was low. This suggests it is important for men to be able to identify highly with either instrumentality or expressiveness when regulating role demands in female-dominated occupations.

The Scarring Effect of "Women's Work": The Determinants of Women's Attrition from Male-Dominated Occupations

Women’s entry into formerly male-dominated occupations has increased in recent decades, yet a significant outflow remains. This study examines the determinants of women’s exits from male-dominated occupations, focusing on the effect of previous occupational trajectories. In particular, it hypothesizes that occupational trajectories in female-dominated occupations are often imbued with meanings and beliefs about the (in)appropriateness of the worker, which adversely affect women’s integration and chances when they enter the male sector. Using the NLSY79 data set, the study analyzes the job histories of women employed in the United States between 1979 and 2006. The results reveal a disproportionate risk of exit among newcomers from female-dominated occupations. Also, women who reenter the male field are more likely to leave it again. Altogether, the findings challenge explanations based on deficiencies in the information available to women at the moment of hiring. The evidence points to the existence of a “scar effect” of previous work in the female field, which hinders women’s opportunities in the male sector and ends up increasing the likelihood of exit.

Male workers in the female-dominated long-term care sector: evidence from England

Labor market changes, including growing opportunities to work in the long-term care (LTC) sector, may attract more men to this traditionally female-dominated occupation. Analyzing an English national workforce data-set we investigate whether men are remaining within traditional masculine jobs or crossing traditional boundaries into more emotional, and personal care work. We examine organization, local area effect, and service provision on the probability of attracting more men to the workforce. The analysis utilizes multivariate statistics and mixed-effect models. The findings highlight both horizontal and vertical segregation in the types of jobs undertaken by men in the LTC sector. A research agenda is identified.

The gender role self‐concept of men in female‐dominated occupations: does it depend on how they see their jobs?

AbstractIn this study, we investigated the masculinity of men in female‐dominated occupations. Our assumptions that token status, masculine task redefinition, and job control are related to masculinity were supported by results of segmented and hierarchical regressions with data from 213 men in female‐dominated occupations. A comparison with 98 men from male‐dominated occupations revealed that these results are specific for men in female‐dominated occupations. Moderated regression did not support the assumption that the relation between masculine task redefinition would be stronger under low job control. Instead, the opposite pattern was found. Under high job control, the choice of tasks and their redefinition as masculine may be easier. Job control is discussed as a precondition for redefinition processes.

Occupational segregation and gender differentials in earnings in Macedonia

This paper examines gender differentials in earnings in Macedonia, with special emphasis on the role of occupational segregation. The lower earnings of women in Macedonia cannot be explained by gender differences in measured human capital endowments. There is a high degree of segregation of jobs along gender lines, the end product of which is lower earnings for women relative to men. Women are over-represented in female-dominated occupations, and feminization of occupations has a negative impact on earnings. Even after controlling for numerous individual and job characteristics and gender composition of occupations, a huge amount of the gender wage gap remains unexplained. J31, P2

The Economic Integration of Latin Americans in Israel

In this paper we compare the economic integration of Latin American immigrants arriving in Israel under the provisions of the Law of Return with selected benchmark groups: Jewish native-born, immigrants from Europe, Ethiopia, Asia and Africa, the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and English-speaking countries. Our analysis is based on data of the Labor Force Survey 2011 collected by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics. Our findings suggest that Latin American immigrants enjoy a relatively advantageous position in the Israeli labor market. They are located in the middle of the ethnic hierarchy and have attained socioeconomic occupational positions of similar status to that of the Israeli native-born, higher than that of immigrants from the FSU, Ethiopia, and Asia and Africa, but relatively lower than that of immigrants from Europe and ESCs (North America, Australia and South Africa). Our analysis also reveals marked gender gaps. Latino women, like all other working women, seem to suffer from structural disadvantages in the Israeli labor market deriving from their concentration in female-dominated occupations, especially in the social services sector. In the conclusion we discuss the findings in light of existing theories. Dans cet article, nous comparons l’intégration des immigrants latino-américains qui sont arrivés en Israël en vertu de la Loi du Retour en utilisant plusieurs groupes de référence : les Juifs natifs, les immigrants de l’Europe, d’Éthiopie, de l’Asie, de l’Afrique, de l’ancienne Union Soviétique et des pays anglophones. Notre analyse est basée sur des données de l’Enquête sur la main-d’œuvre de 2011, réalisée par l’Office central des statistiques d’Israël. Les résultats montrent que les immigrants latino-américains occupent une position relativement avantagée dans le marché du travail. Ils se trouvent au milieu de la hiérarchie ethnique et ils ont atteint des niveaux socioéconomiques et professionnels de statut similaire à celui des Israéliens natifs, plus élevé que celui des immigrants d’Éthiopie, de l’Asie, de l’Afrique et de l’ancienne Union Soviétique, mais relativement plus faible que celui des immigrants de l’Europe et des pays anglophones (Afrique du Sud, Australie, Canada et États-Unis). Notre étude révèle également des différences marquées sur le plan du genre. Les femmes d’origine latino-américaine, comme d’autres femmes immigrantes, semblent subir les effets d’un désavantage structurel dans le marché du travail israélien, notamment en raison de leur concentration dans des secteurs d’occupation à prédominance féminine (particulièrement les services sociaux). En conclusion, les résultats sont interprétés à la lumière de considérations théoriques.

The impact of gender, culture, and sexuality on Mauritian nursing: Nursing as a non-gendered occupational identity or masculine field? Qualitative study

BackgroundInternational studies have generally defined nursing as a female-dominated occupation. The almost absence of male nurses seems universal, except as a privileged minority occupying positions within nursing specialties (‘islands of masculinity’). Nursing is associated with relatively low status owing to gender and income, and is also influenced by cultural perceptions of social status, the nature of the work and sexuality. ObjectiveThis study aims to describe and analyse how gender and cultural perceptions influenced the development of nursing in Mauritius. This paper examines why nursing in Mauritius became gendered in different ways due to the impact of gender equivalence in the work force, the gendered segregation in clinical practice and the absence of caring feminisation in nursing. Design and settingThis qualitative study is based on in-depth, semi-structured interviews and convenience sampling. The sample includes nurses working at five hospitals. They all come from the central and southern part of Mauritius. The data were collected over a five-month period during 2006. ParticipantsIndividual qualitative interviews were conducted with 47 nurses, both men (27) and women (20), of different grades, ages, religions and ethnic backgrounds. ResultsNursing practice is gender segregated, influenced and supported by cultural traditions and perceptions of gender relations, sexuality and touch in nursing. However, the professional identity and role is considered non-gendered, implied by the title of ‘nursing officer’ and the presence of male nurses who constitute almost 50 percent of the work force. Male nurses do not face similar barriers deterring them from entering nursing profession. Nursing did not develop the image of women's work and a low status job in Mauritius. ConclusionsThe nursing profession in Mauritius has been shaped by a different ‘history of origin’, social, cultural and societal conditions on the basis of the absence of gender imbalance in the work force and caring feminisation in nursing. Moreover, the increase of men's presence in nursing influenced its name, status and perception, shifting nursing into a masculine sphere with advantageous impacts on nursing.

Expulsion or confinement? A comparative perspective on occupational segregation by sex in Spain

Spain has one of Europe's highest levels of occupational segregation by sex. Using data from the Spanish Working Conditions Survey, this article investigates the determinants of workers' probabilities of employment in male-dominated and female-dominated occupations. Combining Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique with counterfactual analysis based on a sample of “hypothetical women”, the authors probe the unexplained components of the probability differentials they identify. While gendered labour market dynamics are found to account for the bulk of segregation, the strength of this effect owes more to “positive discrimination” favouring women in female-dominated occupations than to discrimination against women in male-dominated occupations.

Gender differences in male- and female-dominated occupations among two age cohorts of the lidA study

Gender differences in male- and female-dominated occupations among two age cohorts of the lidA study

Career success of males in female-dominated occupations

Career success of males in female-dominated occupations

Gender-based undervaluation and the equal remuneration powers of Fair Work Australia

We investigate gender-based wage undervaluation in light of Fair Work Australia’s major recent decision for social and community service workers. Using regression methods, we demonstrate that wages for employees in female-dominated occupations are significantly lower than for comparable employees in male-dominated and integrated occupations. This undervaluation is present for both male and female employees, and persists after controlling for industry of employment. We then estimate the undervaluation within industry and juxtapose the results with evidence on the industry distribution of award reliance, a proxy for Fair Work Australia’s equal remuneration powers. There is not a strong relationship within industries between the extent of gender-based undervaluation and award reliance. This suggests that ‘equal remuneration for work of equal or comparable value’ is unlikely to be achieved universally by Fair Work Australia without substantial spillovers between awards and non-award agreements.

The same and the other: male childcare workers managing identity dissonance

As childcare workers, men are in a contested position. On the one hand, they are in danger of being depicted as the pedophile; on the other hand, they are expected to bring something new and innovative to the thus-far female-dominated field. These men are experiencing ‘identity dissonance’ and have to find ways to manage and facilitate legitimate subject positions as both childcare workers and as men. Applying a perspective of discursive positioning, this article discusses men's positioning practices in nine qualitative interviews conducted with male childcare workers in German-speaking Switzerland. We identified a total of six discursive practices that men engage in to manage identity dissonance and construct a legitimate subject position. We found that men are engaging in a greater variety of practices than have been discussed so far. Unlike findings from other studies of men in female-dominated occupations, ours do not point to a clear-cut typology with regards to hegemonic and alternative masculinities; instead they show a variety of practices that are mobilized throughout all interviews.

Occupational sex-segregation, specialized human capital and wages: evidence from Britain

Female-dominated occupations are poorly paid, but there is disagreement about why. Sociological explanations argue that pay in such occupations is low because society undervalues ‘women’s work’, while economic theory argues that this is due to scant requirements for specialized skills. This article sheds light over these debates by examining the impact of occupational feminization on wages in Britain and exploring the mechanisms that produce it, using innovative statistical models that account for both observable and unobservable skill. Results confirm that occupational sex-segregation explains a sizeable portion of the gender wage gap and that wages in female-dominated occupations are lower than wages in other occupations. Inconsistent with human capital theory, low pay in female-dominated occupations cannot be explained fully by low skill specialization or by observable or unobservable characteristics of their workers. Remaining wage penalties in such occupations are consequently taken as evidence of institutional devaluation of ‘women’s work’.

Occupational Gender Stereotypes: Is the Ratio of Women to Men a Powerful Determinant?

Gendered division of occupational choices still exists in contemporary Japanese society. Women are underrepresented in traditionally male-dominated fields, while few men occupy positions in traditionally female-dominated areas. The purpose of the present study was to examine occupational gender stereotypes and its relation to the female-to-male ratio of jobholders. Participants were 540 Japanese (262 women, 278 men) who participated in an Internet survey. The results showed that the female-to-male ratio of jobholders was a strong predictor of gender stereotyping. That is to say, contemporary Japanese recognized male-dominated occupations as typically masculine and female-dominated ones as typically feminine. Gender comparisons revealed that men rated female-dominated occupations as more feminine in nature than did women, while women rated male-dominated occupations as more masculine than did men. Future implications for career interventions focusing on occupational gender stereotypes were also discussed.

Devaluation, crowding or skill specificity? Exploring the mechanisms behind the lower wages in female professions

A conspicuous finding in research on the gender wage gap is that wages are related to the percentage females in an occupation (percent F). Three mechanisms have been suggested to explain this relationship: a devaluation of women’s work, a crowding of women into a limited number of occupations, and a female disadvantage in the accumulation of specific human capital.In this analysis, based on data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey of 2000 (n=2915), we distinguish between these mechanisms using measures of devaluation (Treiman’s prestige scale), crowding (employee dependence on current employer) and specific human capital (on-the-job training).The results show that all the indicators are related to percent F, but not in a linear fashion, and that the percent F-effect on wages is overstated and misspecified. Female-dominated occupations stand out with lower wages than both male-dominated and gender-integrated occupations and this is not explained by any of our measures. Thus, if the hypotheses on segregation and wages should be sustained, they must be further specified and new measures must be found to prove their worth.

Health and Gender in Female-Dominated Occupations: The Case of Male Nurses

The goal of this work is to examine the differential impact that carrying out nursing tasks may have on the health of male nurses who perform their work in female-dominated occupation, and the modulating effect of their conformity to male gender norms. Our study includes 98 male nurses and 98 female nurses, from the University Hospital of Getafe, (in Madrid). The participants completed sociodemographic questionnaire, physical health and Self-perceived Job Satisfaction questionnaires, the GHQ-12, and the Conformity to Gender Norms Questionnaires (CMNI). In general, the male nurses enjoy better health than the female nurses in the variables analyzed. With regard to conformity to masculine gender norms, they show lower conformity to the traditional masculine gender norms than men from the general population. However, the relation of the studied health variables with conformity to masculine gender norms shows classic pattern of habitual health in the men.

Sex in the kitchen: changing gender roles in a female-dominated occupation

The purpose of this paper is to provide a gender entrepreneurship slant to the revolving landscape in the 'culinary underbelly'. The primary aim of this conceptual study is to extend the boundaries of the identified female-dominated occupations beyond the usual suspects - i.e., social work, nursing, elementary school teacher, etc., to the kitchen as the identity of chef life is brought into the discourse. While the study arguably heeds the call to explore occupational segregation in the light of gender and ethnicity, its main emphasis has been towards building upon prior studies on occupational sex-segregation rather than the ethnicity dimension, which was not explored in this study. While this might be a limitation, it does provide the right foundation for future research in the explored area.

Do Women in Female-Dominated Occupations Exit the Labour Market More?: Evidence from Italy, Spain, Denmark and the UK

Literature on sex occupational segregation has typically focused on the micro and macro determinants of it, on mobility patterns over the life course, on implications of segregation and mobility for gender inequalities. Rarely the link between sex-type of occupations and women's risk of labour market interruptions over family formation has been explored. In this article we analyse whether women who are working in female-dominated, male-dominated or integrated occupations have more or less chances to remain attached to the labour market, controlling for qualifications, class, sector and contract positions. By drawing from ECHP, and comparing Italy, Spain, Denmark and the UK, we consider whether the effect of the sex-type of occupations varies across countries with different institutional and cultural configurations. We find that, ceteris paribus , only in the UK the sex-composition of an occupation matters: women in female occupations are more likely to move to inactivity than women in mixed or male occupations. In the other countries considered the main determinants of women's labour market continuity lie elsewhere. In Italy what matters most is the sector of employment (public vs. private). In Spain the sector is relevant too, but also class and the type of contract held (permanent vs. temporary). In Denmark, where policies and culture universally support maternal employment, women's transitions to housework are largely independent of their human capital and their location in the labour market.