Feed Supply Chain Research Articles

Antimicrobial resistance status of selected bacteria isolated from animal source foods and feed in Ethiopia

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of major food-borne pathogens has become an increasing public health problem worldwide. A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 2019 to July 2021 in high-potential meat and dairy products and commercial animal feed supply chain areas of Ethiopia. The objectives of the study was assessing AMR profile of target bacterial pathogens isolated from animal sources foods (ASFs) and feed. A total of 642 ASFs and feed samples collected from selected sampling sites were examined at the microbiology laboratory of animal products, veterinary drugs, and feed quality assessment center. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) were conducted using an automated Vitek 2 XL compact system. Out of 642 investigated samples, 24 different genera and 59 species of bacteria were identified. A total of 185 samples were positive for target bacteria of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella Species. The AST results showed AMR of target bacteria isolates against some of the tested antimicrobials. Of these, 83%, 55%, and 92% isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella Species, showed high level of AMR to Benzylpenicillin, Tetracycline, and Cefalexin/Gentamicin, respectively. The target bacteria isolated from ASFs and feed demonstrated multidrug resistance against some of the tested antimicrobials having public and veterinary importance. This reflects that ASFs and feed could serve as one of the sources for the spread and transmission of antimicrobial-resistant bacterial pathogens. Hence, there is a need for improving hygiene and sanitation practices along the ASFs and feed supply chains. Besides raising community awareness about the risks of AMR, emphasis on the rational use of antimicrobials in animal health practice and further investigations on AMR are recommended.

Immaterial animals and financialized forests: Asset manager capitalism, ESG integration and the politics of livestock.

This article uses interviews with responsible investment professionals to examine the extent to which institutional equity investors, and specifically ‘universal owners’ with highly diversified shareholdings, engage with public issues associated with livestock agriculture. As share ownership becomes increasingly concentrated, and the market for Environmental, Social and Governance investment products grows, these investors are increasingly involved in governing the activities of publicly traded corporations (including leading agribusinesses). This paper brings together political economy and marketization studies research to explore how universal owners become concerned about particular environmental and ethical problems, why they overlook other public concerns, and in what ways their selective engagement with ethico-political issues might be altering the content of food politics. Comparing universal owners’ engagements with farm animal welfare issues and with tropical deforestation within animal feed supply chains, we argue that these institutions engage with tropical deforestation because it presents a financially material risk to firms across multiple industries. By contrast, the specificity of farm animal welfare issues to agribusinesses means that they do not pose a material risk to the overall performance of universal owners’ highly diversified asset portfolios. Efforts to concern universal owners about livestock agriculture's social, environmental and health impacts thus generate a food politics which focuses primarily on risks to global economic systems and renders animals themselves distinctly immaterial.

Development and evaluation of a novel visual and rapid detection assay for toxigenic Fusarium graminearum in maize based on recombinase polymerase amplification and lateral flow analysis

Maize ear rot caused by Fusarium graminearum is one of the most severe maize diseases in global maize-growing regions. It reduces maize yield in the field and is also responsible for mycotoxin contamination of grains during the postharvest period. F. graminearum is one of the major deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and zearalenone (ZEN) producers. The ingestion of these mycotoxins represents a risk for human and animal health. Hence, early detection and identification of F. graminearum are crucial to controlling these mycotoxins along the food or feed supply chains. In this study, the recombinase polymerase amplification with lateral flow dipstick (RPA-LFD) assay targeting the gaoA gene that codes for galactose oxidase was developed. The reaction conditions were optimized to make the method rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective. The developed RPA-LFD assay could detect the presence of 20 fg of the target genomic DNA per reaction within 25 min at 40 °C. Moreover, 52 field samples were tested using the developed RPA-LFD assay and compared with conventional PCR-based methods. The positive rate between RPA-LFD and the conventional PCR-based method was 100%. In conclusion, the developed method provides a novel alternative for the rapid, sensitive, and specific detection and identification of F. graminearum. It is not only workable for bulk maize samples without using sophisticated lab equipment but is also potentially useful for other agriculturally important toxigenic fungi.

162 Investigating Strategies to Manage Feed Supply Chain Disruptions on Grow-Finish Pigs

Abstract In the likelihood of a foreign animal disease outbreak, the U.S. pork industry may face supply chain disruptions, including those to feed delivery. Therefore, our objective was to evaluate feeding strategies to prolonged feed availability in group housed finishing pigs and assess impacts on pig performance. 1,407 mixed sex pigs (92±11 kg BW) were blocked by initial average BW to pens and assigned to 1 of 5 treatments (n =12 pens/treatment, 22 pigs/pen) over a 21-d test period. Treatments were fed for 14 d (P1) and thereafter all pens returned to ad libitum access to a standard commercial diet for 7 d (P2). Treatments included: 1) Pens fed ad libitum (CON); 2) Pens fed at 1.45x ME maintenance requirement daily (1.45x); 3) Pens fed 2x ME maintenance requirement daily (2x); 4) Tightened feeders to lowest setting, fed ad libitum (Closed); and 5) Whole corn kernels, fed ad libitum (Corn). The P1 and P2 BW and feed disappearance were recorded to calculate ADG, ADFI, and G:F. Data were analyzed with pen as the experimental unit and least squares means values reported by treatment. Compared with CON, 1.45x, 2x, Closed and Corn treatments significantly reduced P1 ADG (1.09 vs 0.02, 0.34, 0.72, 0.41 kg/d, respectively), ADFI (3.21 vs. 1.42, 1.90, 2.49, 2.40 kg/d, respectively) and G:F (P < 0.05). During P2, ADG and G:F were both increased (P < 0.05) compared with CON across all treatments. However, ADFI increased only from the CON in the 2x, Closed and Corn diets (P < 0.05). Overall (d 0-21), all strategies attenuated BW, ADG and ADFI (P < 0.0001) compared with CON. However, G:F was only reduced (P < 0.01) in 1.45x and Corn, but not 2x and Closed (P > 0.05) from the CON. In conclusion, implementing management strategies to conserve feed maintained marginal pig growth.

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Animal Husbandry: A Review

The COVID-19 pandemic across the world had different effects of the disease on almost all countries, various industries, and numerous economic sectors that in term were often managed in different ways. At the global level of quarantine and lockdowns to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, the whole of humanity has been faced with various problems, food insecurity being one of them. This review highlighted the impact of the COVID-19 virus on the animal husbandry sector. Dairy, meat, poultry, aquaculture, and others (insects) are the segments of the animal husbandry industry. Animal husbandry plays a very vital role economy of many countries. The globe, almost all countries have forced the closure of schools, restaurants, malls, shops, and markets, limitations on public gatherings and travel resulted in decreased demand for animal products. Lockdown restricts movement and disrupts national and international trade routes is holding back farmers’ access to breeding materials and replacement stocks. This can hit hard to sales for input providers. Pandemic has adversely affected livestock production, animal feed supply chain, skilled workforce, and products from animal husbandry.

Assessment of multi-mycotoxin contamination throughout the supply chain of maize-based poultry feed from selected regions of Malaysia by LC-MS/MS

The objective of this study was to examine the occurrence of multi-mycotoxin contamination throughout the supply chain of maize-based poultry feed. Different sampling points throughout the feed supply chain were selected from two companies that manufactured the poultry feed. A total of 51 samples, consisting of grain maize and maize-based poultry feeds, were collected. The samples were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to determine the occurrence of multi-mycotoxin. The results revealed that 100% of samples throughout the maize-based poultry feed supply chain were spoiled with more than one mycotoxin. Fumonisin B1 (8.02–1,220 µg/kg) and fumonisin B2 (11.1–1,109 µg/kg) were the main mycotoxins detected at all sampling points throughout the feed supply chain. Zearalenone (ZEA) (6.63–7.50 µg/kg) was also detected in 11.7% (n = 6) (out of a total of 51) samples. As the supply chain progresses, a reduction in mycotoxin contamination was observed. Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), HT-2, and T-2 toxin were not detected. The levels of mycotoxins detected throughout the supply chain were below the international regulatory limits, thus indicating the low risk of exposure to mycotoxins in maize-based poultry feed in Malaysia. Nevertheless, due to the presence of multiple ingredients in most food and feed, efforts to understand and address challenges associated with mycotoxins throughout the entire supply chain need to be more holistic to protect public health.

Exploring Performance Deficits in the Fish Feed Supply Chain of Bangladesh

Exploring Performance Deficits in the Fish Feed Supply Chain of Bangladesh

Sustainable aquafeed and aquaculture production systems as impacted by challenges of global food security and climate change

Sustainable aquafeed and aquaculture production systems as impacted by challenges of global food security and climate change

Development of optimisation model for black soldier fly-based aquaculture feed supply chains in Malaysia

Aquaculture is identified as one of the critical food supplies in Malaysia. Due to the increasing demand for aquaculture products, the demand for protein sources for fish feed is also increased accordingly. Black soldier fly larvae is identified as one of the main protein sources that can be used in fish feed. Such larvae can be grown using different types of organic materials, such as food waste, agriculture waste, etc. As Malaysia is the second-largest palm oil producer in the world, therefore, a large number of agricultural wastes, also known as palm-based biomass (e.g., empty fruit bunches, mesocarp fibre, decanter cake, etc.) are generated annually. Based on the current industry practise, palm-based biomass can be converted into value-added products. However, using palm-based biomass as feedback to grow black soldier fly larvae is a relatively recent discovery. Thus, a viable supply chain model has yet to be established. In this work, a mathematical optimisation model is developed via commercial optimisation software (Lingo v. 16) to synthesise an optimum black soldier fly-based aquaculture feed supply chain that utilised palm–based biomass as the feedstock. Based on the optimised result, the annual operating cost of the aquaculture feed supply chain is estimated as RM 5.2 million.

Decision support system for integrated management of mycotoxins in feed and food supply chains

Mycotoxins present a global food safety threat of our feed and food. Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of certain fungi in agricultural products that are harmful to animal and human health. The presence of mycotoxins in these products depends on a variety of management and environmental factors in the field, during storage and/or processing of feed and food commodities. To date, information on mycotoxin management is available, but is not easy to access by supply chain actors. This study aimed to design, build and test a Decision Support System (DSS) that can help decision making on mycotoxin management by various actors along the feed and food supply chains. As part of this, available knowledge and data on mycotoxin prevention and control were collected and synthesised into easy to understand guidelines and tools for various groups of end-users. The DSS consists of four different modules: (a) static information module and (b) scenario analysis module, (c) dynamic module for forecasting mycotoxins, and (d) dynamic module for real-time monitoring of moulds/mycotoxins in grain silos. Intended end-users are all end-user groups for modules (a) and (b); growers and collectors for module (c) and; post-harvest storage managers for module (d). The DSS is user-friendly and accessible through PCs, tablets and smartphones (seehttps://mytoolbox-platform.com/). In various phases of the DSS development, the tool has been demonstrated to groups of end-users, and their suggestions have been taken into account, whenever possible. Also, a near final version has been tested with individual farmers on the easiness to use the system. In this way we aimed to maximise the DSS uptake by actors along the chain. Ultimately, this DSS will improve decision making on mycotoxin management; it will assist in reducing mycotoxin contamination in the key crops of Europe, thereby reducing economic losses and improving animal and human health.

Non-Targeted LC-MS Metabolomics Approach towards an Authentication of the Geographical Origin of Grain Maize (Zea mays L.) Samples.

Safety along the food and feed supply chain is an emerging topic and closely linked to the ability to analytical trace the geographical origin of food or feed. In this study, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to trace back the geographical origin of 151 grain maize (Zea mays L.) samples from seven countries using a high resolution non-targeted metabolomics approach. Multivariate data analysis and univariate statistics were used to identify promising marker features related to geographical origin. Classification using only 20 selected markers with the Random Forest algorithm led to 90.5% correctly classified samples with 100 times repeated 10-fold cross-validation. The selected markers were assigned to the class of triglycerides, diglycerides and phospholipids. The marker set was further evaluated for its ability to separate between one sample class and the rest of the dataset, yielding accuracies above 89%. This demonstrates the high potential of the non-polar metabolome to authenticate the geographic origin of grain maize samples. Furthermore, this suggests that focusing on only a few lipids with high potential for grain maize authentication could be a promising approach for later transfer of the method to routine analysis.

Integrated Mycotoxin Management System in the Feed Supply Chain: Innovative Approaches.

Exposure to mycotoxins is a worldwide concern as their occurrence is unavoidable and varies among geographical regions. Mycotoxins can affect the performance and quality of livestock production and act as carriers putting human health at risk. Feed can be contaminated by various fungal species, and mycotoxins co-occurrence, and modified and emerging mycotoxins are at the centre of modern mycotoxin research. Preventing mould and mycotoxin contamination is almost impossible; it is necessary for producers to implement a comprehensive mycotoxin management program to moderate these risks along the animal feed supply chain in an HACCP perspective. The objective of this paper is to suggest an innovative integrated system for handling mycotoxins in the feed chain, with an emphasis on novel strategies for mycotoxin control. Specific and selected technologies, such as nanotechnologies, and management protocols are reported as promising and sustainable options for implementing mycotoxins control, prevention, and management. Further research should be concentrated on methods to determine multi-contaminated samples, and emerging and modified mycotoxins.

A life cycle assessment of the environmental impacts of cattle feedlot finishing rations

PurposeA life cycle assessment was performed for the production of a total mixed ration (TMR) fed to finishing feedlot cattle in California, USA. The goal was to determine the climate change impact of the feed supply chain associated with the production of 1 kg finishing TMR (kg CO2e/kg TMR). A secondary goal was to compare the climate change impact of feed versus finished beef (kg CO2e/kg live weight).MethodsThe TMR was based on feeds commonly fed to finishing cattle in California. The Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance Partnership (LEAP) guidelines were followed for inventory data collection. System boundaries included the production of crops and feed additives, transportation of TMR components, and compound feed production. Data were sourced from national databases and Ecoinvent™ unit process data. Three scenarios were assessed as a result of allocation at the transportation step: Scenario A (100% empty return load); Scenario B (50% empty return load): and Scenario C (0% empty return load). Energy, mass, and economic allocation, and system expansion of dried distillers grain solubles (DDGS) were assessed for sensitivity analysis. Total feedlot emission data from Stackhouse-Lawson et al. (2012) were used to compare to impacts of TMR production.ResultsTotal emissions were determined to be 0.630 kg CO2e/kg TMR for Scenario A, 0.576 kg CO2e/kg TMR for Scenario B, and 0.521 kg CO2e/kg TMR for Scenario C. Corn production, transportation, and liquid premix production were primary contributors to the life cycle impacts of TMR production. Mass-based allocation of DDGS was found to have the most significant effect on overall impacts of the finishing TMR, with a 42% increase in life cycle emissions compared to other allocation methods. For Scenario A, feed used in Angus feedlot production contributed to 76% of total Angus feedlot emissions. Additionally, feed used in Holstein feedlot production contributed to 58% of total Holstein feedlot emissions.Conclusions and recommendationsThe present study demonstrates a need to better assess the feed supply chain of feedlot beef production in order to accurately identify areas that have the most significant impacts on overall emissions. This may aid in minimizing impacts associated with feed production and, by extension, beef production. The present study may also serve to inform future decisions for improvements or alterations of the LEAP guidelines.

Introducing the Rapid Alert Supply Network Extractor (RASNEX) tool to mine supply chain information from food and feed contamination notifications in Europe.

BackgroundDuring food or feed contamination events, it is of utmost importance to ensure their rapid resolution to minimize impact on human health, animal health and finances. The existing Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) is used by the European Commission, national competent authorities of member countries and the European Food Safety Authority to report information on any direct or indirect human health risk arising from food or feed, or serious risks to animal health or the environment in relation to feed. Nevertheless, no methods exist to to collectively evaluate this vast source of supply chain information.MethodsTo aid in the extraction, evaluation and visualization of the data in RASFF notifications, we present the Rapid Alert Supply Network Extractor (RASNEX) open-source tool available from https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4322555 freely. Among RASNEX’s functions is the graphical mapping of food and feed supply chain operators implicated in contamination events. RASNEX can be used during ongoing events as a support tool for risk analysis using RASFF notifications as input.ResultsIn a first use case, we showcase the functionality of RASNEX with the RASFF notification on a 2017/2018 contamination event in eggs caused by the illegal use of fipronil. The information in this RASFF notification is used to visualize nine different flows of main and related food products. In a second use case, we combine RASFF notifications from different types of food safety hazards (Salmonella spp., fipronil and others) to obtain wider coverage of the visualized egg supply network compared to the first use case. Actors in the egg supply chain were identified mainly for Italy, Poland and Benelux. Other countries (although involved in the egg supply chain) were underrepresented.ConclusionsWe hypothesize that biases may be caused by inconsistent RASFF reporting behaviors by its members. These inconsistencies may be counteracted by implementing standardized decision-making tools to harmonize decisions whether to launch a RASFF notification, in turn resulting in a more uniform future coverage across European food and feed supply chains with RASNEX.

New perspectives for evaluating relative risks of African swine fever virus contamination in global feed ingredient supply chains.

There are no published reports indicating that the African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been detected in feed ingredients or complete feed. This is primarily because there are only a few laboratories in the world that have the biosecurity and analytical capabilities of detecting ASFV in feed. Several in vitro studies have been conducted to evaluate ASFV concentration, viability and inactivation when ASFV was added to various feed ingredients and complete feed. These inoculation studies have shown that some feed matrices support virus survival longer than others and the reasons for this are unknown. Current analytical methodologies have significant limitations in sensitivity, repeatability, ability to detect viable virus particles and association with infectivity. As a result, interpretation of findings using various measures may lead to misleading conclusions. Because of analytical and technical challenges, as well as the lack of ASFV contamination data in feed supply chains, quantitative risk assessments have not been conducted. A few qualitative risk assessments have been conducted, but they have not considered differences in potential scenarios for ASFV contamination between various types of feed ingredient supply chains. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a more holistic understanding of the relative potential risks of ASFV contamination in various global feed ingredient supply chains and provide recommendations for addressing the challenges identified.

Pola penyediaan dan rantai pasok pakan serat pada musim kemarau di peternakan rakyat sapi perah, Lembang, Kabupaten Bandung Barat

<p><strong>Objective: </strong>This study aimed to explore and understand the source of fiber feed that is commonly used, and analyze the activities of fiber feed provision in dairy farms during the dry season, and investigate the fiber feed supply chain.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This research was conducted on rural dairy farms in the Sub-district of Lembang located in West Bandung District. The data was collected by adopting an interview method with 50 farmers implements a purposive sampling technique to gather information regarding the provision pattern, supply chain of respective fibre feed. Samples of fiber feed in the dairy farms were taken using a simple random sampling technique. The data acquired is analyzed using descriptive analysis; these data consist of nutrient content of the fiber feed, provision pattern during the dry season, and the supply chain map of those fiber feed provisions.<strong></strong></p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The result reveals that the fiber feed that has been given to the dairy cows was cultivated grass, natural grass, legumes, and plant residue that entirely supplied from neighborhood area (≤ 30 km), which has different nutrient content. There are 16 provision patterns of fibre feed in the dry season, the vast majority of provision pattern was the combination of foraging from the farmer’s land and feed purchasing. By referring to the RFV calculations, legumes and vegetable waste have good quality. The fibre feed supply chain is relatively short, which is about (1-4 actors) due to its freshness and required no processing.<strong></strong></p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>In conclusions, the fibre feed that has been given to the dairy cows was cultivated grass, natural grass, legumes, and plant residue. There are 16 provision patterns of fibre feed in the dry season. The fibre feed supply chain is relatively short.</p>

Aptasensors for mycotoxin detection: A review

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi, which represent a risk to the food and feed supply chain, having an impact on health and economies. A high percentage of feed samples have been reported to be contaminated with more than one type of mycotoxin. Systematic, cost-effective and simple tools for testing are critical to achieve a rapid and accurate screening of food and feed quality. In this review, we describe the various aptamers that have been selected against mycotoxins and their incorporation into optical and electrochemical aptasensors, outlining the strategies exploited, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. The review also discusses the different materials used and the immobilization methods employed, with the aim of achieving the highest sensitivity and selectivity.

The impact of management practices to prevent and control mycotoxins in the European food supply chain: MyToolBox project results

The presence of mycotoxins in cereals has led to large economic losses in Europe. In the course of the European project MyToolBox, prevention and control measures to reduce mycotoxin contamination in cereals were developed. This study aimed to estimate the impact of these prevention and control measures on both the reduction in crop losses and the increased volume of crops suitable for food and/or feed. It focused on the following measures: the use of fungicides during wheat cultivation, the use of resistant maize cultivars and/or biocontrol during maize cultivation, the use of real time sensors in storage silos, the use of innovative milling strategies during the pasta making process, and the employment of degrading enzymes during the process of bioethanol and Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) production. The impact assessment was based on the annual volume of cereals produced, the annual levels of mycotoxin contamination, and experimental data on the prevention and control measures collected in the course of the MyToolBox project. Results are expressed in terms of reduced volumes of cereals lost, or as additional volumes of cereals available for food meeting the current European legal limits. Results showed that a reduction in crop losses as well as an increase in the volume of crops suitable as food and/or feed is feasible with each proposed prevention or control measure along the supply chain. The impact was the largest in areas and in years with the highest mycotoxin contamination levels but would have less impact in years with low mycotoxin levels. In further research, the impact assessment may be validated using future data from more years and European sites. Decision makers in the food and feed supply chain can use this impact assessment to decide on the relevant prevention and control strategies to apply.

Impact of COVID-19 on animal production in Ghana.

COVID-19 is a highly infectious disease originating from Wuhan, a city in China (Lone and Ahmad, 2020), in November 2019. This virus has, since its emergence, caused widespread damage to the world, including both developed and developing countries. Aside from the health implications of the disease, other important areas, including the agricultural value chain, such as the livestock production sector, has had its share of the effects (Bisson and Hambleton, 2020) given its role in nutrition, livelihood, and food security. The COVID-19 pandemic has also brought into focus a number of issues, including food safety and hygiene issues, intricately linked to the consumption of the animal resourced foods, the high cost of production on the African continent versus cheaper imports now less available due to global movement restrictions, and the weaknesses in feed, veterinary, insurance, and other supply chains (AU-IBAR, 2020). Like other African countries, animal production in Ghana has not been spared the negative impacts on the activities of stakeholders along the livestock value chain from feed production and supply, communal grazing, sustainable use and conservation, and provision of veterinary services, including artificial insemination, livestock trade, transport, slaughtering, processing, and marketing of livestock products. These suggest the need for various governments and stakeholders in the West African region, including Ghana, to put in measures to counteract the adverse effects of the pandemic in the livestock subsector and the agricultural sector as a whole. This paper examines the effects of COVID-19 on animal production in Ghana.

Pollen supplements and substitutes in the EU feed market: a product/market survey for bees and other animal species

A survey to overview the presence of pollen supplements and substitutes for bees and other animal species in the EU was conducted to serve as input for the regulatory risk assessment of genetically modified feed by the EFSA GMO Panel. A comprehensive mapping of the possible presence of pollen collected by honey bees in the feed supply chain requires an understanding of the production in the EU as well as the flow of imports from non-EU to EU countries. The different uses of pollen as feed supplement were compiled by both identifying products being offered as well as the scientific and grey literature describing the applicability of pollen as feed for invertebrates such as honey bees and bumble bees as well as vertebrates ranging from pond fish, pet birds and chickens, rabbits, dogs, horses, camels, sheep and cows. The use of pollen as feed for managed honey bee colonies was identified, but rarely in commercial products due to the potential risk of spreading bee diseases. Significant quantities of frozen pollen were found necessary for the rearing of bumble bee colonies, which are marketed on an industrial scale for pollination. Bumble bee production is the only niche market where large amounts of pollen are specifically used as feed. Feed products for vertebrates tend to be generated from the same stock as pollen-based products for human consumption. This niche market is very fragmented. Any beekeeper can produce and market a pollen-based product. Only a few large specialized producers have been identified both in and outside the EU. The ratio between food and feed use of pollen is unknown in most cases. A notable exception is feed for bumble bee colonies, which may account for half of the pollen produced and imported in the EU. Products for other animals (vertebrates) are unlikely to represent more than 5% of the market. The customs classification for pollen does not allow for a clear distinction between food and feed and no statistics are being systematically stored and maintained.