Feed Ingredients Research Articles

112 Nutritional, feed safety, and environmental benefits and limitations of using soybean co-products in swine diets

Abstract Various types of soybean co-products are used in swine diets which have benefits and limitations related to protein quality, environmental impact, and feed safety. To address these concerns for sustainable pork production, methodologies have evolved. Soybean processing and storage methods affecting protein oxidation have been studied less than lipid oxidation. Protein carbonyl concentrations were measured and compared among diverse samples of soybeans and soybean meal from different regions of the US and processed by mechanical or solvent extraction. Mechanically extracted soybean meal had greater concentrations of protein carbonyls than solvent extracted soybean meal which were associated with a greater concentration of residual oil. Soybeans and their co-products also contain antioxidants that may protect against more extensive lipid and protein oxidation. Understanding the interactions between natural antioxidants and oxidation of lipid and proteins in soy co-products is important for optimizing nutritional efficiency and health in sustainable pork production systems. Because soybean meal is a major component of swine diets, its origin and environmental footprint affects the environmental impact of feed, manure, and pork production. Using a spatially explicit lifecycle assessment of feed ingredients and regional manure management programs, we compared the effect of using four feeding programs on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, land use, and embedded water consumption in 3 major U.S. pork production regions assuming they would provide equal growth performance and carcass composition. Although environmental impacts varied among regions, the corn-soybean meal feeding program resulted in the greatest land and water use of all grower-finisher feeding programs, and more GHG emissions than feeding low protein amino acid supplemented (LP) diets and diets containing 8% supermarket food waste, but less overall GHG emissions than the distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) feeding program. Results from a subsequent study showed that feeding corn-soybean meal diets optimized growth performance and carcass composition while simultaneously reducing impacts on climate change, marine and freshwater eutrophication, and fossil resource use compared with feeding DDGS and LP diets. Lastly, the extended survival of infectious agents such as African swine fever virus in feed ingredients has important implications for biosecurity and prevention of transboundary transmission of swine diseases. We developed a risk-free in situ surrogate non-animal assay (RISNA) to estimate survival of ASFV in various feed ingredients and conditions, and results indicate greater thermal stability than previously observed, and comparable extended survival among corn- and soybean-based ingredients. These new insights will be useful in revising feed biosecurity protocols to prevent introduction and transmission of ASFV in feed supply chains. In conclusion, holistic assessments of feed ingredients, like our evaluation of soybean co-products, are needed to achieve a more sustainable, One Health approach to pork production.

PSIV-21 Ileal digestibility of amino acids in feed ingredients for 22-, 56-, and 87-kilogram pigs

Abstract The objective of the present study was to test the hypothesis that the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of amino acids (AA) in feed ingredients is not constant in pigs with 3 different body weights (BW). Eight pigs with initial BW of 22.2 ± 1.2 kg cannulated at the distal ileum were used. Two experimental diets contained corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and soybean meal-wheat mixture (SBM-W; 70% soybean meal + 30% wheat) as the sole source of nitrogen, respectively. The diets were assigned to the animals in a 2-period cross-over design. Each period consisted of a 5-d adaptation period and a 2-d ileal digesta collection period. The animals, diets, and experimental design for 50 kg pigs (initial BW = 55.6 ± 3.3 kg) and 80 kg pigs (initial BW = 86.9 ± 5.1 kg) were identical to those used for 22 kg pigs. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to determine the effect of ingredient type (corn DDGS or SBMM) and BW of pigs (from 22 to 87 kg) and the interaction between these 2 main effects. The AID of crude protein, lysine, and methionine in both corn DDGS and SBM-W linearly or quadratically increased (P < 0.05) with an increase in pig BW. An interaction between ingredient type and linear effect of BW was observed (P < 0.05) in histidine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine. Specifically, a linear increase in AID of these AA with increasing BW of pigs was greater in SBM-W compared with corn DDGS. In conclusion, the AID values of most AA differed between the BW range of 22 to 87 kg, and these patterns varied among different ingredients.

308 Awardee Talk: Prevention and mitigation of pathogens in feed and feed manufacturing systems

Abstract Prior to 2013, pathogen transmission through feed was focused primarily on bacteria and biosecurity was used to prevent adulterant entry into the ingredients and the feed mills. Following the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) outbreak in 2013, research focused on pathogen mitigation and control quickly became a subject of interest. Since PEDV, multiple endemic viruses and foreign animal diseases have been found to be transmissible in feed or feed ingredients. As African swine fever virus (ASFV) spread closer to the United States and endemic pathogens are a continued pressure on production systems, it is imperative that prevention measures are included in the feed supply chain and options for mitigation are fully elucidated for times of need. Previous research has demonstrated that preventative measures such as boot baths, lines of separation, showers, and changing clothes are effective measures when appropriately maintained. However, these protocols can seem costly and burdensome to employees, especially when the risk of disease transmission appears low. Employee training is difficult as disease transmission is difficult to visualize and exhibit the importance of each measure. Glo Germ, a florescent substance, is a cost-effective training tool which can demonstrate the efficacy of prevention protocols and can identify areas where biosecurity measures have not been properly utilized. Preventative measures are the first line of defense for feed manufacturing systems, but understanding and using mitigation techniques in the event of contamination can limit pathogen spread and protect the rest of the feed supply chain. Pelleting, as a method of thermal inactivation process, has recently been demonstrated to lessen the quantity of detectable viral RNA and decrease the risk of infection. The pelleting process, however, is a point-in-time mitigant and does not decrease the risk of product re-contamination as feed continues down the supply chain. The use of chemical mitigants, like formaldehyde, medium-chain fatty acids, and organic acids, can decrease the presence of bacterial and viral pathogens with longer-lasting mitigation properties. These mitigants can either be used in the feed itself, or as an addition to flushing batches which help disperse the chemical mitigants throughout the feed manufacturing equipment, thus reducing the risk of product re-contamination. In the event more drastic measures must be taken to eliminate pathogen presence from feed mills, gaseous fumigation and the use of portable heaters show promise as methods to decontaminate feed manufacturing equipment without the use of water or complete equipment breakdown. Overall, effective training and implementation of preventative measures are needed to provide pathogen-free feed to production systems, but continued research in mitigation and mill decontamination will further protect the feed supply chain in the event of pathogen contamination.

255 Anchor Talk: Consider intrinsic factors that regulate homeostasis to optimize sustainability of mineral supplements for swine

Abstract Decades of research has focused on methodologies to improve the efficiency of mineral use while assuring sufficient intake to meet animal well-being and production needs. A primary focus of these efforts is P, as P is the third most expensive category of nutrients supplemented in swine diets. Bioavailability of P is more variable than other nutrients in feed ingredients commonly fed to swine. Due to complexities involved in assessments of P bioavailability efforts shifted to defining P digestibilities for each ingredient. Efforts to refine P digestibilities, based on intake and fecal excretion, even with corrections for endogenous losses, have failed to provide a constant coefficient for feed ingredients that can be included in diet formulations, as the digestibility estimates vary with animal age, production phases and inclusion of enzymes such as phytase. An under-appreciated contribution to inaccuracies of digestible P relates to intrinsic regulation of Ca and P homeostasis by the animal. Regulation of Ca and P homeostasis by PTH and 1,25(OH)2D3, must now include a third mineralotropic hormone, FGF23. Applying insights for intrinsic roles of FGF23 will allow more efficient use of nutrients, especially P and vitamin D. FGF23 regulates activation of vitamin D and controls renal P excretion. Over-supplementation of P signals osteocytes (bone cells embedded in a mineralized matrix) to release intact FGF23 which targets the kidney to block reabsorption of P for maintenance of soft tissue homeostasis, resulting in an inefficient use of dietary P. Intact FGF23 also inhibits hydroxylation of 25-OH D3 to form 1,25(OH)2D3. These endocrine pathways illustrate major roles provided by kidneys and bone to allow adaptation to variable Ca and P inputs, thus maintaining homeostasis. Recent efforts to assess P requirements of sows during gestation and lactation illustrate the sensitivity of using renal excretion of Ca and P to assess requirements. Based on 24-h collections, urine Ca:P ratios > 1.5 were consistent with deficient P intake, ratios from 0.5 to 1.5 reflected P adequacy, and ratios < 0.5 indicated excessive P intake. As a practical method, spot urine samples collected at variable times throughout the day reliably predicted Ca:P ratios in 24-h urine collections. Thus, a simplified approach using Ca to P ratio in spot urine samples can be used to assess P intake adequacy. This practical approach can be applied in commercial sow herd to allow herd-based assessment of P status. In conclusion, within herd assessments, based on urine Ca:P ratios, can be used to determine if P supplements are deficient, adequate, and excessive. As such, significant progress can be made to provide a balance between the need to adequately meet animal need with efforts to minimize negative environmental impacts from over-supplementation of P.

292 Effects of feeding mycotoxins-contaminated feed with a mitigation strategy on growth performance and health status in weaned pigs

Abstract Various types and levels of mycotoxins are present in feed ingredients, thus negatively impacting swine health and productivity. Appropriate sampling and frequent testing of feed ingredients are recommended to assess the risk of mycotoxins in feed and to determine mitigation strategies for mycotoxin control. However, monitoring plans do not guarantee feed will be free of mycotoxins, so in-feed mitigation strategies are implemented to minimize production losses. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a mycotoxin mitigation product (MultiSHIELD, modified clinoptilolite-based product) on growth performance and health status of weaned pigs under dietary challenges with various types and levels of mycotoxins commonly found in feed. The presence of mycotoxins was confirmed in the ground corn, which was obtained from the Midwestern United States and then used in a standard corn and soybean meal-based diet for three dietary treatments. Treatments were as follows: 1) control diet containing mycotoxins without mitigation (fumonisins B1 at 390, 454, and 527 ppb; zearalenone at 727, 846, and 982 ppb; deoxynivalenol at 671, 781, and 907 ppb in N1, N2, and N3 diets, respectively), 2) control diet with 0.15% of MultiSHIELD as mitigation level 1, and 3) control diet with 0.3% of MultiSHIELD as mitigation level 2. A total of 912 weaned pigs were allotted to 1 of 3 dietary treatments (19 pigs per pen and 16 replicates per treatment) in a randomized complete block design with the initial body weight (as blocking. The results revealed that mycotoxin mitigation, regardless of the mitigation levels, had decreased removal rate (P < 0.01), incidence of injectable medication treatments (P = 0.01), ear necrosis (P = 0.27), and scours (P = 0.18) compared with control. Overall, pigs fed mycotoxin mitigation treatment diets had heavier pen weight (P = 0.06) than those fed the control diet due to fewer removals. The results also demonstrated a significant improvement of economic parameters (i.e., income over feed cost per pen; P = 0.01) for pigs fed diets with MultiSHIELD, regardless of the inclusion level, than pigs fed control diet. In conclusion, poor swine productivity was observed due to the presence of mycotoxins in feed, and the inclusion of MultiSHIELD in feed under the mycotoxin challenge delivers a positive impact on health and economic performance of nursery pigs.

177 Modulation of fecal microbiome by phytogenics, a postbiotic, and mix of organic acids with essential oils in weaned pigs subjected to F18 Escherichia coli challenge

Abstract This study evaluated the effects of bioactive feed ingredients on fecal microbiome of weaned pigs subjected to F18 enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) challenge. Two blocks of weaned pigs [n = 72; Yorkshire/Landrace/Duroc; initial body weight (BW) = 6.62 ± 1.37 kg] were balanced by gender and litter and randomly allocated to one of the six treatments with 12 pens/block and 6 pigs/pen. Treatments included: 1) basal diet (NC), 2) NC + 0.1% phytogenic (Fresta Protect, Delacon, Austria; PFP), 3) NC + 0.2% postbiotic (Dia-V Nursery, Diamond V, IA; PB), 4) NC + 0.2% new phytogenic prototype (Delacon, Austria; NPP), 5) NC + 0.2% organic acid and essential oil blend (OA+EO), and 6) NC + 0.1% phytogenic (Fresta Protect) + 0.2% postbiotic (Dia-V Nursery; PFP+PB). The trial lasted 15 d, with a 7-d pre-challenge and 8-d post-challenge periods. Pigs were orally inoculated with 5 x 1010 CFU/mL of F18 ETEC (O147:H2, LT:STb:STa:Stx2:F18) on d 8 and 9 of study after 5-h fasting. Fecal swabs were collected before challenge (d 8) and 3- and 8-d post-challenge (d 10 and 15 of study) and subjected to shotgun metagenomics. Diarrhea score and E. coli shedding (CFU/mL) were monitored daily and analyzed using a multi-level mixed effect ordinal logistic regression with block and pen as random effects. Microbiome data were center-log-ratio transformed and analyzed for diversity, abundance, and interaction networks. At 3-d post-challenge, the OA+EO, PFP+PB and NPP supplemented pigs had reduced (P < 0.001) E. coli shedding compared with NC. Diarrhea score tended to be less (P = 0.054) in PFP+PB fed pigs 5-d post-challenge and was less (P = 0.02) in PFP+PB, OA+EO, and NPP 6-d post-challenge than NC. Alpha-diversity declined (P < 0.01) 3-d post-challenge with most reduction in PFP and OA+EO but recovered 8-d post-challenge except for PFP and OA+EO (P < 0.01). At the baseline and 8-d post-challenge, the largest number of differentially abundant taxa (P < 0.05) were observed in PFP+PB compared with NC. The PFP+PB reduced the abundances of Escherichia.sp000208585 and Campylobacter.P585 which were negatively correlated (P < 0.01) with average daily gain (ADG) and BW, and positively correlated (P < 0.01) with diarrhea score and E. coli shedding. The PFP+PB increased beneficial species including Prevotella.sp900543585, Mitsuokella jalaludinii, and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii with the first two positively correlated (P < 0.01) with ADG and BW, and negatively correlated (P < 0.01) with diarrhea score and E. coli shedding. By d-8 post-challenge, PFP+PB microbial network had the highest degree of negative connections suggestive of a more competitive microbial ecosystem against opportunistic microorganisms compared with NC. In conclusion, co-supplementation of Fresta Protect phytogenic and postbiotic promoted a microbiome with greater beneficial and reduced detrimental bacteria resulting in low diarrhea score post-challenge.

256 Anchor Talk: Accounting for effects of microbial phytase on digestibility of calcium and phosphorus

Abstract Inclusion of increasing levels of microbial phytase in diets for weanling and growing pigs results in a linear increase in the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of Ca and P. In many experiments, maximum effects on STTD of Ca and P were obtained with inclusion of around 1,200 phytase units (FTU) per kg of diet, although some of the newer phytases appear to release Ca and P until at least 2,000 FTU is included in the diets. In most individual feed ingredients and most practical diets, the maximum standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P that is obtained by using between 500 and 1,000 FTU per kg diet is around 70%, whereas the STTD of Ca for some ingredients can be over 80% if microbial phytase is used. One reason for the decreased STTD of P than of Ca in diets with maximum dosages of phytase is that dietary Ca prevents some P from being absorbed, and the STTD of P in practical diets, therefore, will never be 100% regardless of phytase inclusion. It is, however, important that the increased STTD of dietary Ca that is caused by phytase is taken into account in diet formulation because of the negative effects of Ca on STTD of P. In addition, at low dietary phytase there is release of more Ca than P, whereas at greater inclusion levels of phytase, there may be a similar release of Ca and P. Release of Ca and P by phytase is also impacted by ingredient composition in the diets because phytase does not have the same effect on all ingredients. In general, ingredients with low concentration of phytate have greater STTD of P if no phytase is used than ingredients with greater concentrations of phytate P, but the response to phytase is greater for ingredients with high concentrations of phytate. Sows also have lower digestibility of Ca and P than growing pigs and the response to phytase in diets for sows is less than in diets for growing pigs. Likewise, there is a linear reduction in phytase effects on STTD of both Ca and P as pigs get older. In contrast, in diets for newly weaned pigs there are specific advantages to using high concentrations of phytase (at least 2,000 FTU) because gastric pH is reduced in diets with phytase, which results in less diarrhea. This effect may be related to increased concentrations of plasma inositol in pigs fed diets with phytase, which may positively impact the immune status of the pigs. In conclusion, use of phytase in diets for pigs results in increased STTD of Ca and P and may have other benefits as well.

PSI-18 Effects of heat treatment and multi-carbohydrase supplementation on the digestibility of phosphorus in field peas fed to growing pigs

Abstract Most plant-based feed ingredients contain about two-thirds of their total P as phytate. Mineral elements are chelated to phytate or entrapped in plant cell walls, and microbial or enzymatic breakdown of cell walls may be able to release entrapped P, thus leading to improvement of the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of P in pigs. Heat treatment is one of the processing methods that improve the digestibility of fiber in various feedstuffs for pigs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effects of heat treatment and multi-carbohydrase supplementation on the ATTD and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in peas fed to growing pigs. A total of 18 pigs (23.9 ± 1.3 kg) were assigned to 1 of 3 diets in a completely randomized design to give 6 replicates per diet. Three experimental diets were formulated: 1) non-heated or 2) heat-treated (pelleted) peas as the sole source of P, and 3) heat-treated peas with multi-carbohydrase supplementation. Pigs were individually housed in metabolism crates for 12 d, including 7 d for adaptation and 5 d for total collection of feces. Pigs were offered their daily ration at 2.8 times their maintenance energy requirement. Samples of ingredients, diets, and feces were analyzed for dry matter, Ca, and P. Fecal samples were analyzed for mixed bacterial mass (MBM) and volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentrations. Data were analyzed using the PROC MIXED of SAS. The statistical model included diet as fixed effect and replicate as random effect. An alpha level of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance and P ≤ 0.10 was considered a trend. Pigs fed the diet that contained heat-treated peas with carbohydrase supplementation tended to have greater (P < 0.10) ATTD and STTD of P than pigs fed the diet containing heat-treated peas without enzyme. The values of STTD of P were 54.4, 47.3, and 55.0% for diets containing raw peas, heat-treated peas, and heat-treated peas with carbohydrase supplementation, respectively. Heat treatment and enzyme supplementation did not affect the ATTD of Ca in peas fed to growing pigs. No significant differences were observed in fecal MBM-P and VFA concentrations. In conclusion, carbohydrase supplementation tended to increase the digestibility of P in heat-treated peas fed to growing pigs, however, there was no difference in P digestibility between raw and heat-treated peas. Heat treatment and carbohydrase supplementation did not affect fecal MBM-P and VFA concentrations in growing pigs.

106 Net energy of soybean meal

Abstract Our current net energy (NE) systems were developed based on work conducted around 40 yr ago. At that time, it was normal that pigs deposited no more than 40% of the protein they were fed. However, modern genetic lines are much leaner than older genetics and they deposit more protein than earlier. It is, therefore, not uncommon that protein deposition in modern genotypes exceeds 60% of dietary protein intake. This means that more of the amino acids in the protein-rich ingredients are used for protein deposition and less are being deaminated with a subsequent reduced energetic cost of deamination associated with feeding protein-rich ingredients. As a consequence, the theoretical energy value of protein rich ingredients such as soybean meal (SBM) is greater when fed to modern pigs than to older genotypes that were used when our current NE systems were developed. Indeed, in several recent experiments it was demonstrated that the ME and NE of SBM is greater than indicated in current feed ingredient tables. A greater NE than predicted has also been demonstrated for field peas, whereas corn does not seem to have increased energy value compared with previous estimates, which is consistent with the hypothesis that it is the increased protein efficiency of modern pigs that is the reason for the greater NE value in SBM. As a consequence of the greater NE value of SBM, less added fat need to be used to reach a certain NE level in the diet, which will reduce overall diet costs. However, because of the greater genetic capacity for protein deposition in modern pigs, there is a need to upgrade the NE system and to develop new equations to predict NE in diets and ingredients based on the protein deposition capacity of modern pigs. It can also be argued that because commercially fed pigs always are group housed and allowed ad libitum intake of feed, pigs fed to generate prediction equations for NE also need to be group housed and allowed ad libitum intake of feed because both animal behavior and level of feed intake may affect the NE value of diets. In conclusion, because of the increased ability of modern genotypes of pigs to retain dietary protein in the body, there is reduced deamination of amino acids and therefore reduced energy loss in modern pigs than in older genotypes, which results in greater NE of protein rich ingredients including SBM. There is, therefore, a need for developing a new NE system that preferably uses group-housed pigs that are allowed ad libitum access to feed.

108 Estimating net energy of soybean meal for 47 to 110 kg growing pigs using a growth assay

Abstract The NE of SBM for growing pigs with body weight (BW) from 47 to 110 kg was determined in the current study using the growth assay. In the first study, a total of 826 pigs (B =, 46.8 ± 2.5 kg) in 44 pens (18 to 19 pigs per pen, 11 pens per treatment) were randomly allotted into one of 4 dietary treatments with initial BW and sex as blocks for 21 d: Corn-SBM based diets with 29.0, 25.7, 22.3, or 19.0% of SBM. Compared with the first study, the second study was conducted with a total of 820 pigs at greater BW (67.0 ± 3.4 kg). Pens were randomly allotted into one of 4 dietary treatments for 42 d: Corn-SBM based diet with 29.0, 25.0, 21.0, or 17.0% of SBM. NE of corn [2,674 kcal/kg, as fed basis, dry matter (DM) 87.1%] was calculated according to NRC (2012) and determined with the analyzed nutrient composition. SBM used in both experiments contained 89.4% of DM, 46.6% of CP, 5.9% of starch, 1.6% of EE, 8.5% of NDF, 6.3% of ADF, and 6.1% of ash. The reduced level of SBM was replaced with corn and crystalline amino acids. Data were analyzed by linear and quadratic contrasts using the Proc MIXED of SAS. In the early growing phase (47 to 67 kg), increasing SBM levels from 19.0 to 29.0% tended to linearly decrease average daily feed intake (ADFI; Linear, P = 0.081, 2.09, 2.03, 2.03, and 2.00 kg/d) but did not affect average daily gain (ADG) or final BW. On the contrary, increasing SBM levels decreased ADG and ADFI in pigs growing from 67 to 110 kg (linear, P < 0.05, ADG: 1.03, 1.02, 1.01, and 1.00 kg/d; ADFI: 2.72, 2,64, 2.63, and 2.58 kg/d). Linear regression analysis showed that, to maintain calorie efficiency, the estimated NE of SBM for pigs growing from 47 to 67 kg is 3,000 kcal/kg (as fed basis), which is 1.12 times corn NE. The estimated NE of SBM for pigs growing from 67 to 110 kg is 2,705 kcal/kg (as fed basis), which is 1.01 times corn NE. Taken together, the results suggest that NE of SBM is close to or greater than NE of corn, warranting the necessity to evaluate the energy of feed ingredients in pigs growing in different phases. The predicting equation of SBM NE (Eq. 1-3 and 1-8, NRC 2012) is recommended to be modified by timing a coefficient of 1.36 or 1.19 for early- or late-growing pigs, respectively, according to the NE of SBM calculated from growth performance data in this study.

The ileal, total tract and postileal digestibility of compound feeds either rich in wheat or rye in an ileo-caecal fistulated minipig model

ABSTRACT Environmental issues and concerns about animal welfare display current challenges in animal husbandry and feeding. Rye, a cereal that has scarcely been used in animal feed in recent decades, could help address some of the challenges in pig feeding as a climate friendly and health promoting feed ingredient. Distinct constituents of rye – especially its non-starch-polysaccharides (NSP) – are fermented in the large intestine while short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced in that process. This can promote gut health and the feeling of satiety in pigs. To examine the site of the digestion of rye within the digestive tract in comparison to wheat as a widely used ingredient in pig diets, two diets with high shares of either wheat or rye (each 69.0%) were fed to ileo-caecally fistulated, adult minipigs. Ileal digesta and faeces were collected and ileal, total tract and postileal digestibility rates were calculated. In the apparent ileal digestibility (AID), significant differences were only found for organic matter (OM) and Nitrogen-free extract (NfE) with lower values for the rye-rich diets (77.2 ± 2.00 vs. 73.8 ± 2.01% and 79.8 ± 2.56 vs. 75.3 ± 2.61%, respectively). These differences could not be recovered for the total tract digestibility (ATTD − 90.2 ± 2.16 vs. 89.8 ± 1.94% and 93.0 ± 1.69 vs. 92.8 ± 1.37%, respectively), resulting in an elevated postileal digestibility which was significant for NfE (13.2 ± 2.42 vs. 17.5 ± 2.77%). Therefore, rye can be used to promote hindgut fill and fermentation in pig feeding, especially in restrictively fed animals such as pregnant sows.

Challenges When Assessing Water-Related Environmental Impacts of Livestock Farming: A Case Study of a Cow Milk Production System in Catalonia

Water availability is a local issue of growing importance in Mediterranean areas where water scarcity linked to climate change and population growth is already leading to increased competition for this resource. This study is aimed at the following: (i) assessing the water-related environmental impacts (water use, freshwater ecotoxicity and eutrophication, marine eutrophication, acidification, human toxicity, and ionizing radiation) along the production chain of cow milk in Catalonia, northeastern Spain; and (ii) addressing the issues encountered (modelling choices, data gaps and inconsistencies) which t can affect the quality of results when performing a water-footprint comprehensive assessment, focusing on water use and associated water scarcity impacts. The scope included the process from the extraction of raw materials up to the distribution of the packaged fat- and protein-corrected milk to the distribution centres of the supermarket chains and markets. Results showed the farm stage to be determinant (contributing to over 60% of the impact), due to the impact of feed production. Impact results were in the range of the European benchmark given by the Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules for dairy products, except for the water scarcity footprint which was one order of magnitude larger than the reference value, due to water scarcity in Spain. Considering compound feed ingredients with a lower water scarcity footprint, and research into slurry treatment for its use as irrigation and cleaning water (without compromising safety and health) could help reduce this impact. Water accounting and traceability along the production chain could support the dairy industry to take responsibility for the consequences of their production choices.

Effect of Maternal High Fat Diet on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Gland (HPA) Axis of the Offspring in Sheep

Maternal consumption of a high fat diet (HFD) during pregnancy is associated with metabolic dysfunction and altered HPA axis function in the offspring. These effects are well established in species with short gestation length (e.g., rodents), but less established in species with longer gestation periods more comparable with humans. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of maternal HFD on basal and stimulated cortisol secretion in the offspring at 16 weeks of age in sheep. All experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Cal Poly Pomona. Pregnant ewes were assigned to control (n=3) and HFD (n=3) groups. The control group was fed farmers best complete ewe and ram pellets. The HFD group was fed the same diet with an additional 30% rumen protected fat (Megalac, Volac Wilmar Feed Ingredients Ltd). After birth lambs were weaned at 12 weeks of age and given free access to control pellet diet with grains. To assess adrenal cortisol secretion at 16 weeks, lambs were infused intravenously with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; 2 ug/kg cortrosyn in 1 mL saline). Blood samples (1 mL) were taken through the jugular catheter at −30, −15, and 0 min (immediately before) and 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after ACTH administration for measurement of plasma cortisol by ELISA. Data were analyzed by two-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Tukey posthoc test. Basal plasma cortisol tended to be higher in HFD (32±8 ng/mL) than control (13±3 ng/mL) lambs, but this did not reach statistical significance. Plasma cortisol was higher than baseline from 15 to 90 minutes after ACTH administration in all lambs (p<0.05). The increment in plasma cortisol was higher in HFD than control lambs from 15-90 minutes (p<0.05). Accordingly, the maximum increase in plasma cortisol at 60 minutes and was higher in HFD (245±8 ng/mL) than control lambs (121±50 ng/mL p<0.05). These preliminary data suggest that maternal consumption of a high fat diet during pregnancy may increase basal and stimulated activity of the HPA axis in sheep. The study was funded by a Strategic Interdisciplinary Research Grant (SIRG) at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Production of biosurfactant sodium lignosulfonate (NaLS) using elephant grass based lignin (Pennisetum purpureum) and NaHSO3

Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is an animal feed ingredient, especially ruminants with a lignocellulose content of 40.85% and lignin of 21.5% and can be used as a raw material for making biosurfactant sodium lignosulfonate. Biosurfactant is an amphiphilic molecule and has biodegradability. This study aims to obtain data on the effect of NaHSO3 concentration, reaction time, and the ratio of elephant grass: NaHSO3 on the sodium lignosulfonate content, yield, degree of sulfonation, and physico-chemical properties of sodium lignosulfonate obtained. This study consists of 3 treatment factors, namely NaHSO3 concentration, reaction time, and mass ratio of elephant grass : NaHSO3. The results showed that sodium lignosulfonate can be produced from elephant grass using direct sulfonation process. The best treatment combination was 80% concentration and 155 minutes reaction time which produced sodium lignosulfonate content of 20.619 mg/L and 65.83% yield. The physicochemical properties are: density 1.4061 g/mL, degree of sulfonation 57.73%, completely soluble in water, smells a little sulfur, has a brownish yellow color, pH 5, and the results of functional group analysis showed a change in functional groups.

Defatted Tenebrio molitor meal time-dependently altered sensory quality and nutritional value of turbot Scophthalmus maximus during growing-out phase

The yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (TM) is promising feed ingredient for aquafeed. However, consumers might reject insect-fed fish unless they know their quality. Nevertheless, reports on how TM influences fish quality were rare and yielded conflicting results; furthermore, there are no evaluations on quality of turbot Scophthalmus maximus fed TM. Therefore, turbot with an initial body weight of 150 g were fed six experimental feeds containing increasing levels of defatted TM to replace fishmeal for 85 days. The substitution levels were 0% (control), 15% (TM15), 22 30% (TM30), 45% (TM45), 60% (TM60), and 75% (TM75). The result showed TM replacing up to 45% of fishmeal did not negatively impact growth performance or fillet yield. Dietary TM optimized the health value of muscle fatty acids regarding thrombogenicity index, atherogenicity index, and hypocholesterolemic to hypercholesterolemic fatty acids ratio but linearly decreased the muscle contents of hydroxyproline, collagen, and n-3 PUFA. However, turbot fed TM15 maintained the contents of these nutrients compared with those fed the control diet. The naked eye cannot perceive skin color changes induced by TM; but the odor, flavor, and texture of cooked fillets changed by TM at both sampling times could be distinguished by sensory evaluation. Furthermore, texture analyzer reported that the hardness of raw fillets significantly decreased by the end of the experiment but not on the 56th day. Correlation analysis revealed that the fillet was softened due to the muscle water content increase and muscle ultrastructure (lengths of H band, bright band, dark band, sarcomere) alternation. In conclusion, there were time-dependent effects of TM on turbot growth performance and fillet texture. Substitution of fishmeal with TM at 15% or less level did not influence the nutritional quality, but TM at any dose softened the fillet, which could be attributed to its influence on moisture content and myofibrillar structure.

Effect of feeding Moringa oleifera based complete pellet feed on milk yield, composition, fatty acids, somatic cell count and cell mediated immunityin lactating goats

Lactation cum feeding trial was conducted on 12 female Barbari goats (Age approx. 2-3 years and mean body weight 34.72 ±1.28 kg) for 120 days after approximately one month of kidding and effect on milk production, milk constituents, somatic cell count, milk fatty acid profile and cell mediated immunity was studied. Animals were divided into two groups (Gr G and Gr M) of six each as per completely randomized design. Two types of complete pellet (Moringa oleifera and Cicer arietinum) based was formulated containing sundried Moringa biomass and Gram straw along with conventional feed ingredients. Lactating goats of Gr G was fed with gram straw based complete pellet feed while goats of Gr M was fed with Moringa based complete pellet feed. Both the complete pellet feeds were iso nitrogenous. No significant difference in body weight changes was recorded between groups. The milk production (g/day) was higher (Avg. 14.54%) in Gr M as compared to Gr G at different fortnight. No significant difference was reported in the milk composition. Milk fat, SNF, Protein and lactose was similar in both the groups. Milk Somatic cell count (×10 3/ml) was significantly (P<0.05) lower in lactating goats fed with Moringa based feed. Cell-mediated immune response assessed through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction against phyto haemagglutinin (PHA-P) was more pronounced in Gr M at 72 and 96 hrs.Higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids (about 16.19%) and lower saturated fatty acids (about 5.49%) was reported in Gr M. Milk fatty acid profile indicators like Index of atherogenicity (IA) was lower while hypo/hyper cholesteremic ratio and health promoting index was higher in milk of moringa based pellet fed goats. Present study concluded that Barbari goats fed with Moringa based complete pellet feed produced higher milk yield with healthier fatty acid profile with low somatic cell counts.

The effectiveness of using maggot (Hermetia illucens) as a super native chicken feed ingredient

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of using maggots as a feed ingredient for super-native chickens. The parameters used include feed consumption, weight gain, feed conversion, carcass weight, and abdominal fat. The ingredients used include 30 super native chickens with an age of 12 weeks, feed ingredients in the form of corn, bran, soybean flour, maggot, Gamal leaves, minerals, and premixes. The study used a complete randomized design with 3 treatments repeated 5 times, the treatment included P0 as control without using maggot flour (0%); P1: Maggot flour concentration 10%; and P2: 20% maggot flour concentration. The stages in the study include preparation of ration formulas, maintenance for 4 weeks, and data analysis using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed the highest protein content at 20% treatment at 17.76%, feed consumption, and feed conversion showed non-significant results, but the highest consumption value at P2 was 219.66 gr/week, and the best conversion at P2 was 0.92. Body weight gain, carcass weight, and abdominal fat showed a significant effect, the best value at P2, for weight gain 242 g / 4 weeks, carcass weight 82%, abdominal fat 0.42.

The effect of EM-4 dosage in fermentation on the quality of soy milk waste (SMW) as an alternative feed ingredient to increase production cost efficiency in the poultry business

The increasing consumption of soy milk, especially in European countries, has an impact on high soy milk production. This causes increasing the waste and it will have an impact on environmental pollution. This research aims to obtain the best dose of EM-4 in fermented soy milk waste (SMW) as an alternative feed to increase production cost efficiency in the poultry business. This research was conducted with laboratory experiments using a completely randomized design (CRD). This research used 5 levels of EM-4 (0; 2.5; 5; 7.5 and 10%) and each treatment was repeated 4 times. Statistical analysis showed that the EM-4 level was very significant (p<0.01) in increasing the quality of texture, moisture content, temperature, sugar and crude protein; reduce crude fiber; and significantly (p<0.05) improved SMW color. The average SMW texture score ranges from 1.00-3.00; moisture content (12.75-15.10%); temperature (27.68-29.33°C); sugar concentration (0.00-5.00%); crude protein (13.66-18.68%), crude fiber (5.07-9.67) and color score (2.50-3.75). It was concluded that fermentation using EM-4 as an inoculum could improve the quality of soy milk waste (SMW) as an alternative feed to increase production cost efficiency in the poultry business. The best quality of SMW was obtained in fermentation with an EM4 level of 7.5%

Assessment of the supply and quality of broiler chicken diets from selected feed mills in Tanzania

A study was conducted to evaluate the supply and nutrient composition of broiler feeds from selected feed millers in the Morogoro, Pwani, and Dar es Salaam regions of Tanzania. Nineteen feed mills were assessed, and a representative from each region was interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Feed samples from each feed mill representing starter, grower, and finisher diets were collected for proximate analysis. The study showed that the average broiler feed production (tonnes/year) per feed mill was approximately 12,000 for Morogoro, 15,400 for Pwani, and 35,000 for Dar es Salaam. Feed production was mainly constrained by inadequate supply and low quality of ingredients, high costs of production equipment, restricted market access, and limited capital investment. The major feed ingredients listed were maize, maize bran, cottonseed cake, sunflower seed meal, soybean meal, and fish meal, while the micro ingredients included blood meal, salt, limestone, dicalcium phosphate, and premixes. Ingredients were mostly sourced from contract suppliers and local markets. The majority of feeds were processed in mash form, while a few were pelleted. There was considerable variation in the nutrient composition of the feeds of different producers. In most of the feeds examined, crude protein (CP), metabolizable energy (ME), and amino acids were below the recommended levels for broiler chickens; fat, Mg, and Na were at the recommended levels; and P, Ca, Mn, Fe, and Zn exceeded the recommended levels. Starter feeds were more costly than grower and finisher feeds, and pelleted feeds were more costly than mash feeds. The feed ingredient prices were high between October and March and lower during the June to July crop harvesting season. In general, commercially processed feeds from different companies showed large variations in nutrient composition; the majority had values below the recommended standards for broiler chickens, while some exceeded and few attained these standards.

Effect of Miscellaneous Meals Replacing Soybean Meal in Feed on Growth Performance, Serum Biochemical Parameters, and Microbiota Composition of 25-50 kg Growing Pigs.

The present study aims to determine the effect of miscellaneous meals (rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal, and sunflower meal) replacing soybean meal in feed on growth performance, apparent digestibility of nutrients, serum biochemical parameters, serum free amino acid content, microbiota composition and SCFAs content in growing pigs (25-50 kg). A total of 72 (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) growing pigs with initial weights of 25.79 ± 0.23 kg were randomly divided into three treatments. The pigs were fed corn-soybean meal (CON), corn-soybean-miscellaneous meals (CSM), and corn-miscellaneous meals (CMM). Each treatment included six replicates with four pigs per pen (n = 24, 12 barrows and 12 gilts). Soybean meal accounted for 22.10% of the basal diet in the CON group. In the CSM group, miscellaneous meals partially replaced soybean meal with a mixture of 4.50% rapeseed meal, 3.98% cottonseed meal, and 4.50% sunflower meal. In the CMM group, miscellaneous meals entirely replaced soybean meal with a mixture of 8.50% rapeseed meal, 8.62% cottonseed meal, and 8.5% sunflower. The results showed that compared with the CON, the CSM and CMM groups significantly improved the average daily gain (ADG) of growing pigs during the 25-50 kg stage (p < 0.05) but had no effects on average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily feed intake/average daily gain (F/G) (p > 0.05). Moreover, the CMM group significantly reduced nutrient apparent digestibility of gross energy compared with the CON group. The serum biochemical parameters results showed that the CSM group significantly improved the contents of total protein (TP) compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). The CMM group significantly improved the contents of total protein (TP), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) compared with the CON group in serum (p < 0.05). In comparison with the CON group, the CMM group also significantly improved lysine (Lys), threonine (Thr), valine (Val), isoleucine (Ile), leucine (Leu), phenylalanine (Phe), arginine (Arg), and citrulline (Cit) levels in serum (p < 0.05). However, the CMM group significantly decreased non-essential amino acid content glycine (Gly) in serum compared with CON (p < 0.05), while compared with the CON group, the CSM and CMM groups had no significant effects on the relative abundance, the alpha-diversity, or the beta-diversity of fecal microbiota. Moreover, compared with the CON group, the CSM group significantly increased butyric acid and valeric acid contents of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in feces (p < 0.05). In contrast to the CON group, the CMM group significantly reduced the contents of SCFAs in feces, including acetic acid, propionic acid, and isobutyric acid (p < 0.05). Collectively, the results of the present study indicate that miscellaneous meals (rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal, and sunflower meal) can partially replace the soybean meal and significantly improve the growth performance of growing pigs during the 25-50 kg stage. Thus, miscellaneous meals are a suitable protein source as basal diets to replace soybean meals for 25-50 kg growing pigs. These results can be helpful to further develop miscellaneous meals as a functional alternative feed ingredient to soybean meal.