Fear Of War Research Articles

The Fear of War Scale (FOWARS): Development and Initial Validation

The emergence of the Ukraine-Russia war in 2022 led to fear, worry and anxiety among individuals, mostly in the immediate neighboring countries of Ukraine. The purpose of the present study was to develop the fear of war scale (FOWARS), aiming to fill the gap in the literature that currently is scarce in valid assessment tools for measuring the fear of war. The sample of the study consisted of N = 1131 participants (n = 670 for group A, for EFA and n = 461 for group B, for CFA). Hungarian speaking participants, mainly from Romania and Hungary. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) evinced a two-factor model of the newly developed scale, and the final version fulfilled the criteria of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The 13-items FOWARS has robust psychometric properties and proves to be appropriate for a fear of war assessment in the general population. The phenomenon is measured by two factors, namely experiential and physiological dimensions of fear. The scale is available in the present paper in two languages: English and Hungarian.

Nuclear Anxiety Amid the Russian-Ukrainian War 2022 (RUW-22): Descriptive Cross-Sectional Study.

Nuclear anxiety, which refers to the fear of nuclear war and its consequences, is expected to increase amid the Russian-Ukrainian War of 2022 (RUW-22). This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of nuclear anxiety and its associated variables among university students in the Czech Republic during the first weeks of RUW-22. A cross-sectional survey-based study was carried out from March-April 2022, utilizing a digital self-administered questionnaire (SAQ) to collect data from the target population. The SAQ consisted of multiple-choice items inquiring about demographic characteristics; generalized anxiety symptoms using generalized anxiety disorder-7 (GAD-7); depressive symptoms using patient health questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9); and attitudes towards civilian uses of nuclear power, and nuclear war-related anxiety. Of the 591 participating students, 67.7% were females, 68.2% were Czech nationals, and 61.8% followed the RUW-22 news at least once daily. The mean GAD-7 score of our participants was 7.86 ± 5.32 (0-21); and their mean PHQ-9 score was 8.66 ± 6.29 (0-27). Regarding the civilian uses of nuclear power, most participants agreed that nuclear power was safe (64.5%), denied being afraid that civilian use of nuclear power might deteriorate their health (79.7%), and thought that public acceptance was important for building new nuclear power plants (56.9%). About 42.1% and 45.5% of the participants reported feeling depressed at the possibility of nuclear war and agreed that the chances that there would be a nuclear war in their lifetime were very high, respectively. When asked about their preparedness measures during the previous four weeks, less than one quarter (23.9%) reported looking for recommendations for protection against nuclear accidents, and less than one-fifth (19.3%) were looking for the nearest bomb shelter. The depression about nuclear war possibility was positively and relatively strongly correlated with the level of "feeling concerned about the RUW-22" (rs = 0.401), and it was moderately correlated with GAD-7 (rs = 0.377) and PHQ-9 (rs = 0.274) scores and weakly correlated with RUW-2-related news-following frequency (rs = 0.196). Within the limitations of the present study, nuclear anxiety was common among Czech university students. Its associated factors may include but are not limited to the female gender; common psychological disorders such as generalized anxiety and depression; RUW-22-related news following-frequency; and the level of "feeling concerned".

Self-perceived mental health and factors associated with the mental health of Hong Kong's asylum-seekers and refugees – A mixed methods study

RationaleThe 21st century has seen vast flows of displaced people. In the year 2020 alone, an estimated 11.2 million were forcibly displaced as a result of persecution, conflict or generalized violence. The torment and fear of war, persecution and threat to life, whether in the home country, during the process of fleeing, or in the post-migration host country, can be extremely traumatic to these marginalized populations. Hong Kong is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, but the territory has signed the 1967 UN(CAT) which requires the former colony to allow people who flee for their lives to have their cases processed in Hong Kong. Currently there are around 14,000 cases in Hong Kong, some of whom have been in Hong Kong for more than a decade, waiting for their claims to be processed, living on meagre government subsidies and with no right to work. ObjectivesThe paper examines the mental health of asylum-seekers and refugees in Hong Kong and the factors associating with their mental health. MethodA sequential mixed methods approach was conducted among asylum-seekers and refugees in Hong Kong between October 2019 and mid-2020. It comprised a pilot quantitative survey conducted with 47 participants, and follow-up qualitative interviews with 16 of the 47 participants. Survey results were analyzed using statistical measures while the qualitative in-depth interviews were thematically analyzed to identify emergent patterns and categories. ResultsResults from the quantitative data identify 52.2% of the asylum-seekers taking part as having symptomatic anxiety, 55.3% as having symptomatic depression and 54.3% as having overall problems. Qualitative results show that asylum-seekers and refugees cited lack of work and poverty as key factors affecting their mental health and well-being. Fear of being sent home was expressed by respondents who were married or having children for the fear of being separated from each other.

The Role of Conflict in Sex Discrimination: The Case of Missing Girls

Conflicts between ethnic groups can threaten group survival and exacerbate son preference in conformity with the traditional role of men as group defenders. We study the impact of the Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region on the subnational variation of sex ratios among children in Armenia that has one of the world’s highest sex ratios at birth. Difference-in-differences analysis shows that communities closer to the conflict region have higher sex ratio among children relative to the communities farther away. The findings from household surveys show that fear of war is associated with a stronger son preference at the individual level.

WAR IN UKRAINE: HUMOR VS FEAR (COMMUNICATIVE AND PRAGMATIC ASPECT)

The article presents material on the peculiarities of the linguistic representation of the fight against fears of war in the modern Ukrainian language (using the example of posts on the Facebook social network and other Internet sources). The following methods were used for the research: linguistic observation and description of linguistic phenomena, text decoding method, comparison, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, continuous sampling method. The article traces the evolution of the discourse of fear in general and in the life of a modern Ukrainian in particular. The study describes the system of emotional and psychological images expressing war fears and verbal means of overcoming them. The main purpose of using humor turns out to devalue fears, so the fears themselves and the negative characters associated with them are depicted in comical, uncomfortable situations. It has been proven that the means of humor in its most diverse manifestations (irony, satire, trolling, banter) permeate all resources of Ukrainian language thinking: dictionary, grammar, orthographic means, quotation thesaurus, linguistic and sociocultural stereotypes, language. norms and registers of speech. From a communicative and pragmatic point of view, images of putin, the aggressor country of russia, russian invaders, etc., were analyzed. It was established that some names form semantic microsystems and branched synonymous series (stereotypical names of russia, russians, and putin himself). As the analysis showed, a significant number of new creations, obscene and euphemistic vocabulary perform primarily protective (health-preserving), evaluative-reflective and integrative (socially unifying) functions, since they are primarily intended to calm, encourage Ukrainians and maintain at least a relative mental balance and at the same time help to sort out feelings, condemn the enemy and brace up to keep struggling on the way to victory. The study of the mechanisms of dispelling fear and means of overcoming it in the modern Ukrainian language have contributed to the knowledge of the connection between the people's worldview and their language and the national linguistic picture of the world.

Резултати от изследване на агресивните нагласи и емоционално състоя- ние на студентите

This article summarizes the results of a study of the aggressive attitudes and emotional state of the students of Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” and Medical College “Y. Filaretova”. The current environment and conditions of crisis – social, energy, economic, political, cultural, spiritual, value, etc. instills the feeling of fear – fear of disease, fear of war, etc. The lack of morals and stable values, as well as the lack of statehood, unquestionably unlocks in man his worst qualities. Aggression is one of those qualities. The studied students answered two questionnaires, one containing 75 questions and the other 28. The analysis of the data shows that most of the students do not feel respected enough and consider that their rights are violated, but they tend not to respect and/or circumvent the rules, to “maneuver” and tolerate irresponsible behavior. A large number of students have aggressive attitudes and tend to hide them, but in general they are tense, unbalanced.

“Where Does My Hope Come From?”: P. D. James’s The Children of Men (1992) as a Christian Dystopia i

While British dystopian works from the 1930s to the mid-1980s were primarily concerned with the fear of totalitarian regimes and/or nuclear war, by the last years of the twentieth century, the end of the Cold War meant that these worries were no longer so prevalent. One result was the appearance of several “demodystopias” or fictions concerned with the demographic crisis which was causing increasing concern in the developed world at the time. Although P. D. James’s The Children of Men (1992) has been compared with other demodystopias like The Handmaid’s Tale (1986) and Zoe Fairburns’ Benefits (1979) and described as a feminist work, it is far more of a Christian fable and contains echoes of Christian writers from Dostoevsky to T.S. Eliot. It also takes seriously the concerns of her contemporaries about declining birth-rates, an ageing population and an increasing dependency ratio. James joins in the discussion on these issues, but also asks what can give people hope and a reason to live in this ageing world. Her conclusion is that hope, and a meaningful life, are like happiness, things which are not found by specifically seeking for them, but are by-products of a life based on faith and love.

냉전체제 속의 베를린

This study deals with the history of Berlin during the Cold War from 1945 to the late 1960s. After World War II, Germany was divided into four regions and governed by the Allied Powers. Shortly after, with the onset of the Cold War, Germany was divided into East and West. Berlin, the capital, was also destined for the same fate. The western part of the city was placed in a special situation as a Western area located in the middle of East Germany. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as West and East Germany, frequently clashed over West Berlin. The city was regarded as a bastion of Western liberalism and a representative location symbolizing the Cold War. Above all, the image of an “Island of Freedom” was imprinted.
 This study focuses on the spatial specificity created in West Berlin during the Cold War. Specifically, the influence that space had on the residents and result it produced is examined. To this end, the period was divided into four phases, focusing on the keywords “correction, exhibition, tension, and reorientation,” and the formation and change of the space and the people who lived in the city investigated. Right after the war, Berlin was considered the heart of Nazi Germany and became a place of correction where intensive de-Naziization and re-education of citizens took place. However, with the onset of the Cold War in 1947/1948, the situation changed. A favorable mood toward the West was rooted in West Berlin citizens who experienced the First Berlin Crisis (the Berlin Blockade). Afterwards, the city, which was heavily reliant on the support of the US and West Germany, took on the function of exhibiting the superiority of the liberal system by competing with the communist system.
 As the Second Berlin Crisis began in 1958; West Berlin citizens felt the fear of war and doubts about the city's survival. The heightened tension caused by the construction of the Berlin Wall brought about changes in citizens’ consciousness. It led to the public's expression of anxiety. On the one hand, there were those who relied more on the US. On the other, those seeking change appeared. In particular, the younger generation sought a new path through resistance and deviation, breaking away from the existing Cold War thinking. This was expressed as conflicts within the city in the late 1960s. Since then, the city has been transformed into a space that exhibits more international and open character and diversity.

Fear of war and mental health in Germany

PurposeThe objective of this study was to clarify the association between fear of war (both conventional war and nuclear war) and mental health (in terms of probable depression and probable anxiety).MethodsData were used from the general adult population in Germany (n = 3091 individuals; 15th March–21st March 2022). Probable depression and probable anxiety were both quantified using validated tools (PHQ-9/GAD-7). Multiple logistic regressions were used, adjusting for several sociodemographic, lifestyle-related and health-related factors.ResultsIn total, 23.1% of the individuals had probable depression and 16.0% of the individuals had probable anxiety. Multiple logistic regression showed that the likelihood of probable depression was positively associated with fear of a conventional war (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.14–1.37). Furthermore, it was associated with fear of a nuclear war (OR 1.22, 95% CI 1.12–1.33). Additionally, regressions showed that the likelihood of probable anxiety was positively associated with fear of a conventional war (OR 1.66, 95% CI 1.49–1.86). Moreover, it was associated with fear of a nuclear war (OR 1.54, 95% CI 1.39–1.71).ConclusionsOur findings stress the importance of fear of war for mental health in the general adult population in Germany. Upcoming research in this area is necessary.

Social Media Addiction and Fear of War in Germany

Individuals with an excessive use of social media may be frequently exposed to stimuli, such as (fake) news or images of violence, which might lead to a higher fear of war. Therefore, the objective of this study is to examine the association between a social media addiction and fear of war (conventional war and nuclear war) in Germany. Data were taken from a nationally representative survey with n = 3091 participants (18 to 74 years; data collection in mid-March 2022). Social media addiction was quantified using the validated Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale. Moreover, established items were used to quantify a fear of war. Medium differences (in terms of Cohen’s d) were identified regarding the fear of war between individuals without a social media addiction and individuals with a social media addiction. Adjusting for several covariates, the regressions revealed that individuals with a social media addiction had a higher fear of war compared to individuals without a social media addiction (fear of a conventional war: β = 0.44, p < 0.01; fear of a nuclear war: β = 0.61, p < 0.001). In conclusion, our study demonstrated an association between a social media addiction and fear of war.

Chairman Mao’s Crisis, Superpowers’ Nuclear Dance: The Nuclear Risk in 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis

A considerable amount of scholarly work on the theory of nuclear risk and the history of the 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis exists in the field, yet no research was done to systemically examine the nuclear risk in the 1958 Crisis. This study aims to establish a theoretical framework of assessing nuclear risk and employ it to measure the risk of limited and total nuclear escalation during the 1958 Crisis. This study operationalizes three theories of nuclear escalation risk, including direct escalation risk, inadvertent escalation risk, and accidental escalation risk, through specific causalities in the 1958 crisis. To assess the nuclear risk in the 1958 Crisis, this study uses archival documents and secondary sources from all participant countries including the US, USSR, and China. I find that Mao deliberately played with the nuclear risk because he had no stake throughout the crisis. The Eisenhower administration was unwilling to retaliate massively, while seriously committed and contemplated the nuclear use if China bombed and invaded Quemoy and Matsu. Khrushchev danced with Eisenhower amid serious fear of nuclear war. I conclude that the nuclear risk in all three kinds was relatively low. The findings are important since nuclear armament is always a matter of life and death for countries.

Climate anxiety in Germany

ObjectivesThis study aimed to clarify the level and the correlates of climate anxiety in Germany. Study designThis was a quota-based online survey. MethodsWe used data collected in mid-March 2022 from a sample of the general adult population (n = 3091 individuals aged 18–74 years; March 2022). Climate anxiety was quantified using the Climate Anxiety Scale (ranging from 1 to 7, with higher scores corresponding to higher levels of climate anxiety). ResultsThe average level of climate anxiety in Germany was 2.0 (standard deviation [SD]: 1.2). It differed between subgroups (e.g. individuals aged 18–29 years: 2.4, SD: 1.3; individuals aged 65–74 years: 1.8, SD: 1.0). Log-linear regressions showed that climate anxiety was higher among younger individuals (β = −0.005, P < .001), full-time employed individuals (compared with retired individuals, β = 0.07, P < .01), individuals without chronic conditions (compared with individuals with at least one chronic conditions, β = −0.08, P < .001), individuals already vaccinated against COVID-19 (compared with individuals not vaccinated against COVID-19, β = 0.10, P < .001), individuals with higher levels of coronavirus anxiety (β = 0.06, P < .001), and individuals with greater fear of a conventional war (β = 0.09, P < .001). ConclusionsOur study showed a rather low level of climate anxiety. It also revealed some correlates of greater climate anxiety such as higher levels of coronavirus anxiety or greater fear of war. Knowledge about the correlates may assist in addressing individuals at risk for high levels of climate anxiety.

Страхи российского студенчества в ситуации социальной неопределенности (весна 2022 года)

The article is devoted to the analysis of the repertoire of Russian students’ fears in four Russian regions in the context of the spring events of 2022. The usual and new aspects of fears and anxiety are described, as well as their regional differences due to the event context and territorial proximity/remoteness from the arena of a special mili-tary operation. Empirical data were collected among students of 1-4 full-time courses of study in economic, social and humanitarian areas of training in the Sverdlovsk, Tyumen, Rostov and Belgorod regions from 03/10/2022 to 03/15/2022. The study used the method of group focused interviews (8 focus groups). In the course of quali-tative data analysis, axial and thematic coding procedures were implemented. It was revealed that the structure of the dominant elements in the repertoire of fears is pre-served in all analyzed regions (fear of illness of relatives and friends, war, one’s own illness and loss of working capacity, arbitrariness on the part of the authorities, pov-erty), however, for students of the Urals and Siberia, the fear of illness of relatives is in the first place, while in the border regions the first position is occupied by the fear of war. It was revealed that the external environmental factors of the border areas af-fect the strengthening of fears: the closer and more real the threat is, the sharper and more specific the students' fears are. Socio-psychological tension is caused by dif-fuse, natural fears for the life, health and well-being of loved ones, one's own social future, the future of the country and the world, which, under the influence of a situa-tion of uncertainty, acquire concreteness and menacing acuteness. New aspects in the palette of fears are associated with economic, political, cultural changes in the coun-try and the world, and, first of all, with manifestations of the "cancel culture". Its economic aspect is due to the total and long-term economic sanctions against the Russian Federation, which caused a surge in economic fears, the need to cope with which will require serious changes in the economic consciousness and behavior of young people. The political aspect of cancel culture is associated among students with growing fears about the external political isolation of Russia and alienation from vari-ous forms of political activity within the country. The socio-cultural aspect of the cancellation phenomenon manifested itself in new types of fears of the cultural isola-tion of Russia as a whole, reduced access to familiar social networks and services, limited student cultural, scientific, educational exchanges and educational opportuni-ties abroad.

Economic and policy uncertainty: Aggregate export dynamics and the value of agreements

We examine the interaction of economic and policy uncertainty in a dynamic, heterogeneous firms model. Uncertainty about foreign income, trade protection, and their interaction dampens export investment. Trade agreements can mitigate uncertainty and the probability of policy uncertainty shocks. We use firm data from 2003–2011 to establish new facts about U.S. export dynamics. These facts include a differentially lower export growth to non-preferential markets driven by the extensive margin at the start of the Great Trade Collapse. The structural model can explain this differential as a consequence of a shock to demand uncertainty. The shock was three times larger for non-preferential markets than preferential ones and it was later reversed, which is consistent with the timing of trade war fears in the crisis.

Influence of physical education on overcoming stress of students of higher educational institutions

The article analyzes the important topic of stress, considers possible ways to prevent stressful situations with the help of physical exercises. The world and Ukraine in particular survived two difficult years of the pandemic with all possible bans, isolations, distance learning at all levels of the educational process. Currently, Ukraine is in an extremely difficult state of active Russian war against our country. This gave rise to new realities with limitations in education, staying in shelters, evacuation, etc. As a result of all these factors, stamina, which is very necessary for studying, even if it is done online, can decrease. Various means can help in such a difficult situation, the most effective of which are physical exercises. The purpose of the study is to define the concept of "stress" as a phenomenon of the reality of modern man, which affects the health of students of higher education institutions of our country; determination of possible ways to strengthen stress resistance through physical exertion. Distance learning, fear of war, worries for one's life as new realities of Ukrainian students have further deepened the already rather difficult student life. Physical activity is the best way to relieve psycho-emotional stress, overcome stress, and prevent diseases. Physical exercises help improve mood, gain a sense of confidence, bring the functional state of the body to an optimal level. The authors recommend students, under the conditions of distance learning, stay at home, in shelter, to prevent panic attacks and stress, breathing exercises, a set of physical exercises for different muscle groups, yoga, Pilates, etc. Conclusions were made that physical culture has an extremely favorable effect on the health of students, both physically and psychologically and mentally. However, many students take their health too lightly and neglect to perform complex exercises in physical education classes. Therefore, physical education teachers need to involve students in active sports in order to prevent the negative consequences of stress in their lives.

Political Party Affinity and Fear of Conventional and Nuclear War in Germany

Aim: to clarify the association between political party affinity and fear of conventional and nuclear war in Germany. Methods: data were used from a nationally representative online survey (in terms of age bracket, sex and state; n = 3091 individuals; mid-March 2022). Multiple linear regressions were used to investigate the association between political party affinity and fear of conventional and nuclear war in Germany, adjusting for several covariates. Results: while, for example, individuals who had an affinity with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) of Germany reported the highest frequency of severe fear of a conventional war (58.0%), individuals who had an affinity with the Left Party (Die Linken, left-wing) reported a somewhat lower frequency of severe fear (48.2%) and individuals who had an affinity with the Alternative for Germany (AFD, right-wing) reported the lowest frequency (43.7%). Regressions showed that—compared to individuals who had an affinity with the SPD—individuals who had an affinity with the Free Democratic Party (FDP, liberal) and particularly individuals who had an affinity with the Alternative for Germany (AFD) reported a markedly lower fear of war (both fear of a conventional war and fear of a nuclear war). Conclusion: our study showed some interesting associations between political party affinity and fear of war in Germany. This knowledge may assist in characterising individuals at risk for higher levels of fear of war.

Toward an Understanding of the Russian-Ukrainian War Impact on University Students and Personnel

Background On February 24, 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine provoking the most serious military conflict in Central Europe since 1945. By mid-May 2022, thousands of Ukrainian civilians have been killed or injured and millions relocated in the country or dispersed to other, mostly European, countries. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the impact of the war on the mental and emotional well-being of Ukrainian civilians—university students and personnel. Methods A snowball, non-probability sampling technique, was used for online survey data collection among students and personnel of 4 universities from May 5 to May 17, 2022. Four reliable instruments were used to collect information on the fear of war, resilience, burnout, and loneliness. Additional information was collected on substance use and eating behavior. Results Most respondents (97.8%) reported deterioration of their psycho-emotional status including depression (84.3%), exhaustion (86.7%), loneliness (51.8%), nervousness (84.4%), and anger (76.9%)—students more than personnel, females more than males. The use of substances (i.e., tobacco, alcohol, pain relievers, and sedatives) has increased as well as loneliness associated with fear, burnout and lower resilience. However, despite these conditions, 12.7% of the respondents have reported the war has not affected them. Conclusion Study findings are preliminary and limited in terms of time and location of data collection. However, results confirm the negative effects of war associated with mental health, fear, substance use, stress, loneliness, burnout, and other related conditions. Further research is needed to confirm the findings including the long-term impact of the war on the health and well-being of Ukrainian citizens.

The Other Kitchen Debate: Gender, Microwave Safety, and Household Labor in Late Cold War America

“The Other Kitchen Debate” places the history of the microwave oven in the context of Cold War anxieties and gender politics. Discrepancies between Soviet and U.S. safety standards, Soviet deployment of microwave espionage, and the prospect of nuclear war triggered fears about the possible dangers of kitchen appliances powered by low-level radiation. During the 1970s and early 1980s, politicians, government regulators, industry representatives, advertisers, home economists, media, and consumers engaged in lively debates over oven safety and the merits of microwave cookery. By the late eighties and early nineties, as East–West tensions waned and record numbers of American women entered the paid labor force, American media perceived fewer distinctions between the hazards posed by electronic ovens and those presented by their conventional counterparts. New definitions of safety redefined microwave ovens as purely domestic appliances, leaving questions about the potential risks of nonionizing radiation unresolved.

Страхи как социально-психологический феномен в кинопропаганде холодной войны

This article examines the role and place of film propaganda in the formation of specific fears in mass consciousness during the Cold War. The study focuses on characteristic narrative models, which were used by Soviet and American state propaganda to create a simplified perception of the enemy. Based on more than 150 films for the period of 1946–1991, an attempt is made to analyse the typical film plot structures that create, support and spread public fears of the enemy. Four types of fear are singled out: fear of alienation, hidden enemy, occupation, and nuclear war. Each of them had a significant impact on mass consciousness and formed the basis for the development of sophisticated propaganda models. Further, the dynamics of changes in public opinion over the decades on issues related to clear threats – nuclear war, occupation, actions of spies and saboteurs – is demonstrated. The paper establishes a direct link between foreign policy events of the Cold War and transformations of film propaganda, which actively used these events for its purposes. As a result, the initially reasonable fears among the population were consolidated with the help of various tools of influence, including cinematography, and existed through the late 20th century. Based on the analysis carried out, the author concludes that fears reflected in film propaganda played a significant role in stereotyping and mythologizing the mind. The phenomenon of self-reproduction of this type of ideological influence indicates its relevance at the present stage of Russian-American relations.

Assignment Russia: Becoming a Foreign Correspondent in the Crucible of the Cold War

Assignment Russia: Becoming a Foreign Correspondent in the Crucible of the Cold War