Fat In Children Research Articles

Evaluating Childhood Obesity: Magnetic Resonance-Based Quantification of Abdominal Adipose Tissue and Liver Fat in Children

The purpose of this study is to establish and validate a magnetic resonance (MR)-based fat quantification package that provides an accurate assessment of abdominal adipose tissue and liver fat in children. Ex vivo trials with a torso model and water-oil mixtures are conducted. Abdominal adipose tissue (AAT) is covered by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using a fat-selective sequence and is analyzed by a plug-in based on the open source software ImageJ. Liver fat (LF) is measured with localized 1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H MRS) and the jMRUI (java-based Magnetic Resonance User Interface) software package. Evaluation of the clinical methodology involved a study of 10 children in this feasibility study (mean age and body mass index: 13.3 yr; 33.3 kg/m²). To evaluate the method's validity, reference measurements were performed. Ex vivo trials with the torso model showed that adipose tissue was measured appropriately with a systematic underestimation by 9.3 ± 0.2 % (0.32 ± 0.064 kg). Coefficients of variation for both intra- and inter-observer measurements ranged between 0 - 2.7 % and repeated analyses showed significant equivalent results (p < 0.01). The lipid content obtained by 1H MRS ex vivo revealed significant equivalence with the predefined fat content in water-oil mixtures (p < 0.01). In vivo, the homemade plug-in significantly overestimated the AAT, with the visceral adipose tissue being most affected (+ 15.7 ± 8.4 %). Although an overestimation of the AAT by the presented plug-in should be taken into consideration, this children-friendly package enables the quantification of both LF and AAT within 30 min on a freeware-based platform.

Milk Intakes Are Not Associated with Percent Body Fat in Children from Ages 10 to 13 Years

AbstractEpidemiologic studies report conflicting results for the relationship between milk intake and adiposity in children. We examined prospective and cross-sectional associations between milk intake and percent body fat among 2245 children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Cross-sectional analyses were performed at age 13 y between total, full-fat, and reduced-fat milk intake assessed using 3-d dietary records and body fat from DXA. Prospective analyses were conducted between milk intakes at age 10 y and body fat at 11 and 13 y. Models were adjusted for age, sex, height, physical activity, pubertal status, maternal BMI, maternal education, and intakes of total fat, sugar-sweetened beverages, 100% fruit juice, and ready-to-eat cereals; baseline BMI was added to prospective models. Subset analyses were performed for those with plausible dietary intakes. Mean milk consumption at 10 and 13 y was (mean ± SD) 0.90 ± 0.73 and 0.85 ± 0.78 servings/d [1 serving = 8 oz of milk (244 g of plain and 250 g flavored milk)], respectively. Cross-sectional results indicated an inverse association between full-fat milk intake and body fat [β = –0.47 (95% CI = –0.76, –0.19);P= 0.001]. Milk intake at age 10 y was inversely associated with body fat at 11 y [β = –0.16 g/d (95%CI = –0.28, –0.04);P= 0.01], but not among those with plausible dietary intakes, suggesting that this association was influenced by dietary measurement errors. Milk intake was not associated with body fat at age 13 y after adjustment. Although our prospective results corroborate other findings of a null associations between milk intake and adiposity, our inconsistent findings across analyses suggest further investigation is needed to clarify the relation, and accounting for dietary reporting errors is an important consideration.

Parental eating attitudes and indicators of healthy eating in a longitudinal randomized dietary intervention trial (the STRIP study)

To examine the effects of child-oriented dietary intervention on parental eating attitudes and dietary behaviour. In the prospective, randomized Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Children (the STRIP study), a cohort of Finnish families took part in a nutritional intervention trial focused on the quality of their children's fat intake since the age of 8 months. Health-related and hedonic eating attitudes of the parents were measured after 10 years of dietary intervention using a validated Health and Taste Attitude Scales (HTAS) questionnaire (n 660). Parents' eating behaviour was studied using a 1 d food record (n 491). Finland. Mothers and fathers (n 660) of the STRIP children. The parents of the intervention families had a higher level of interest in healthy eating compared with control parents. The interest in natural products or hedonic eating attitudes did not differ between the groups. The parents' general health interest was associated with low saturated fat intake, fruit and vegetable consumption, fibre intake and seeking pleasure in eating, but it was not associated with BMI. The intervention also improved the quality of dietary fat among parents with the lowest level of interest in healthy eating. Parents' general health interest was associated with regular dietary counselling as well as with healthier food choice behaviour. However, the dietary intervention that focused especially on the quality of the child's fat intake also enhanced specific changes in the family's fat consumption without a high level of interest in healthy eating.

Changing from regular-fat to low-fat dairy foods reduces saturated fat intake but not energy intake in 4–13-y-old children

Dairy foods are nutrient rich but also a source of saturated fat in the diets of children. We assessed effects on dietary intakes and health outcomes of changing dairy foods consumed by children from regular- to reduced-fat varieties. This study was a 24-wk cluster randomized controlled trial in 93 families with 4-13-y-olds who were randomly allocated to parental education regarding changing to reduced-fat dairy foods (n = 76 children) or reducing screen time (n = 69 children). Study outcomes, which were measured at weeks 0, 12 (end of the intervention), and 24, included saturated fat, energy, and nutrient intakes; pentadecanoic acid and blood lipid concentrations; body mass index z score; and waist circumference. Multilevel analyses were used with adjustment for child- and family-level covariates. There were no group differences in overall dairy intakes (-45 g dairy; 95% CI: -141, 51 g dairy; P = 0.356). Saturated fat intakes were 3.3 percentage points lower (P < 0.0001) in the intervention group at week 24 than in the comparison group. Pentadecanoic acid concentrations were lower at week 12 (0.03%; P = 0.012) but not at week 24. LDL-cholesterol concentrations were not different at week 12, but LDL-cholesterol concentration was 0.15 mmol/L lower in the intervention group at week 24 than in the comparison group (P = 0.037). There were no significant group differences in total energy or adiposity measures. Regular-fat dairy foods decreased from 88% to 14% of dairy intake in the intervention group. Calcium, magnesium, and carbohydrate (percentage of energy) intakes were higher in the intervention group than in the comparison group; retinol intakes were lower in the intervention group than in the comparison group; and overall vitamin A intakes were similar between groups. Advice to parents to change to reduced-fat products was effective in reducing children's saturated fat intakes but did not alter energy intakes or measures of adiposity. This trial was registered in the Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry as ACTRN12609000453280.

Genetic Markers of Obesity Risk: Stronger Associations with Body Composition in Overweight Compared to Normal-Weight Children

BackgroundGenetic factors are important determinants of overweight. We examined whether there are differential effect sizes depending on children's body composition.MethodsWe analysed data of n = 4,837 children recorded in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), applying quantile regression with sex- and age-specific standard deviation scores (SDS) of body mass index (BMI) or with body fat mass index and fat-free mass index at 9 years as outcome variables and an “obesity-risk-allele score” based on eight genetic variants known to be associated with childhood BMI as the explanatory variable.ResultsThe quantile regression coefficients increased with increasing child's BMI-SDS and fat mass index percentiles, indicating larger effects of the genetic factors at higher percentiles. While the associations with BMI-SDS were of similar size in medium and high BMI quantiles (40th percentile and above), effect sizes with fat mass index increased over the whole fat mass index distribution. For example, the fat mass index of a normal-weight (50th percentile) child was increased by 0.13 kg/m2 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.09, 0.16) per additional allele, compared to 0.24 kg/m2 per allele (95% CI: 0.15, 0.32) in children at the 90th percentile. The genetic associations with fat-free mass index were weaker and the quantile regression effects less pronounced than those on fat mass index.ConclusionsGenetic risk factors for childhood overweight appear to have greater effects on fatter children. Interaction of known genetic factors with environmental or unknown genetic factors might provide a potential explanation of these findings.

Efficacy of increasing physical activity to reduce children's visceral fat: A pilot randomized controlled trial

To examine whether differentially targeting physical activity within the context of pilot family-based pediatric weight control treatment results in differential change in abdominal fat, particularly visceral fat. Twenty-nine overweight children (>85(th) body mass index [BMI] percentile) and at least one participating parent were randomly assigned to one of two family-based behavioral weight management conditions that either targeted 1) primarily dietary change (STANDARD; n = 15) or 2) dietary plus physical activity change (ADDED; n = 14). Differences at post-treatment in overall child weight status (e.g., BMI), whole-body composition (measured by dual x-ray absorptiometry), and abdominal fat (measured by waist circumference and magnetic resonance imaging) were assessed using intent-to-treat analyses, as were post-treatment parent BMI and waist circumference. Child and parent physical activity and dietary behavior changes were also evaluated. Results. At post-treatment, overall child weight status, whole-body composition, and child dietary measures did not differ by condition. Children in the ADDED condition tended to have higher physical activity and lower visceral abdominal fat at post-treatment relative to children in the STANDARD condition. Increasing physical activity may be important to optimize reductions in abdominal fat, especially visceral fat, among overweight children provided with family-based behavioral weight management treatment. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00359957.

Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry to Measure the Influence of a 16-Week Community-Based Swim Training Program on Body Fat in Children and Adolescents With Intellectual Disabilities

Casey AF, Rasmussen R, Mackenzie SJ, Glenn J. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry to measure the influence of a 16-week community-based swim training program on body fat in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Objective To use dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to measure the effects of a 16-week community-based swim training program on percent body fat in children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID). Design Convenience sample. Setting University sport complex and exercise science laboratory. Participants Children and adolescents (n=8; mean age ± SD, 13.1 ± 3.4y), 2 girls and 6 boys with ID, of varying fat levels (11%–35%). Intervention A swim training program lasting for the duration of 16 weeks with three 1-hour sessions held at a 25-m pool each week. Main Outcome Measure Assessing percent body fat at pretest and posttest through the use of DXA. Results After the 16-week exercise training program, we observed a 1.2% median increase in body fat percentage with a range from –0.3% to 4.5%. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks tests suggest that these results are statistically significant ( P=.039; exact). Conclusions Exercise training alone proved ineffectual in reducing percent body fat in 8 children and adolescents with ID. Further research should consider implementing a combined diet and exercise program. To gauge the effectiveness of intervention programs, valid methods and complex measurement tools such as DXA should be used to assess changes in percent body fat in such a heterogeneous population.

Are ‘Competitive Foods’ Sold At School Making Our Children Fat?

Almost one-third of American children and adolescents are now either overweight or obese. One contributing factor may be the foods and beverages sold outside of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) school meal programs, which are often called "competitive foods." These foods, such as cookies, chips, and sodas, are often available through vending machines, snack bars, and other outlets on school premises. They are not required to conform to the nutritional standards of the USDA school meal programs. This paper looks at the research into whether these competitive foods may be affecting students' dietary intake or contributing to their risk of obesity.

Umbilical Waist-to-Height Ratio and Trunk Fat Mass Index (DXA) as Markers of Central Adiposity and Insulin Resistance in Argentinean Children with a Family History of Metabolic Syndrome

Central adiposity is increasing in childhood. To find a simple index of central fatness that accurately predicts insulin resistance we studied 55 obese children and 53 siblings, aged 6-16 years. We recorded the family metabolic score, calculated clinical and DXA-derived fat distribution indexes and HOMA-IR. Umbilical waist-to-height ratio (W-to-Ht) had the best combination of ROC area (0.99, IC95: 0.93 to 1.0), Youden's index (0.976), coefficient of variation (4.9) and correlation with HOMA-IR (r = 0.58, p < 0.0001); it also correlated (p < 0.001) with BMI (r = 0.95) and DXA-trunk fat mass index (r = 0.93). It was the best predictor of insulin resistance in a multiple regression model (p < 0.0001). Odds ratios for insulin resistance were 9.33 when the family score was >10 (p < 0.01) and 14.35 when umbilical W-to-Ht was >0.54 (p < 0.0001). Umbilical W-to-Ht, a simple marker of central adiposity, strongly relates to children's DXA-trunk fat mass index and insulin resistance.

Abdominal Fat in Children Measured by Ultrasound and Computed Tomography

The prevalence of childhood obesity is increasing rapidly. Visceral fat plays an important role in the pathogenesis of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Currently, computed tomography (CT) is broadly seen as the most accurate method of determining the amount of visceral fat. The main objective was to examine whether measures of abdominal visceral fat can be determined by ultrasound in children and whether CT can be replaced by ultrasound for this purpose. To assess whether preperitoneal fat thickness and area are good approximations of visceral fat at the umbilical level, we first retrospectively examined 47 CT scans of nonobese children (body mass index <30 kg/m 2; median age 7.9 y [95% range 1.2 to 16.2]). Correlation coefficients between visceral and preperitoneal fat thickness and area were 0.58 ( p < 0.001) and 0.76 ( p < 0.001), respectively. Then, to assess how preperitoneal and subcutaneous fat thicknesses and areas measured by ultrasound compare with these parameters in CT, we examined 34 nonobese children (median age 9.5 [95% range 0.3 to 17.0]) by ultrasound and CT. Ultrasound measurements of preperitoneal and subcutaneous fat were correlated with CT measurements, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.75–0.97 (all p < 0.001). Systematic differences of up to 24.0 cm 2 for preperitoneal fat area (95% confidence interval –29.9 to 77.9 cm 2) were observed when analyzing the results described by the Bland-Altman method. Our findings suggest that preperitoneal fat can be used as an approximation for visceral fat in children and that measuring abdominal fat with ultrasound in children is a valid method for epidemiological and clinical studies. However, the exact agreement between the ultrasound and CT scan was limited, which indicates that ultrasound should be used carefully for obtaining exact fat distribution measurements in individual children. (E-mail: v.jaddoe@erasmusmc.nl)

The fat child—a sign of ‘bad’ motherhood? An analysis of explanations for children's fatness on a Finnish website

AbstractChildren's fatness has become a central concern worldwide, Finland included. In Finland, fatness is mainly discussed from the biomedical viewpoint as a considerable health risk resulting from individual ways of life. In the case of childhood fatness, it is the parents that are mainly held responsible for its prevention and treatment. It has been widely noted that fat people are often blamed for such things as laziness and lack of self‐control. As regards fat children, however, the role and possible blaming of parents has received less scholarly attention. This paper examines the ways children's fatness is explained in an anonymous Finnish Internet discussion, focusing especially on the ways parents are depicted as causing their child's fatness and as possibly blameworthy for this. A discourse analysis revealed that parents were mainly viewed as the primary cause of the child's fatness and were negatively constructed as having ‘lousy’ characters, being unable to create an ‘adequate’ emotional bond with their child, or as otherwise engaging in ‘faulty’ child‐rearing practices. Significantly, the latter two constructions included notions similar to the psychological expert notions of parenthood. All three constructions of parents were also gendered, being either implicitly or explicitly equated with the mother. Children's fatness was also explained, and parents' primary role thus questioned or mitigated, by reference to some other factors, such as genes. These explanations, however, did not seem to hold their ground in the discussion. The occurrence and implications of these explanations is discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Developmental differences in subcutaneous fat in children.

Developmental differences in subcutaneous fat in children.

SUBCUTANEOUS FAT IN CHILDREN

Journal Article Subcutaneous Fat in Children Get access Nutrition Reviews, Volume 20, Issue 9, September 1962, Pages 266–268, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1962.tb04659.x Published: 01 September 1962

Association of Sports Club Participation with Fitness and Fatness in Children

Decreased fitness and increased fatness are relevant factors for decreased cardiovascular and bone health in children. One way to increase physical activity and hence fitness and to reduce the risk for overweight might be sports club participation (SCP). To investigate the association of SCP with fatness and fitness in children in general and in those with increased risk for overweight and/or low fitness. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a random sample of 502 first- and fifth-grade primary school children. Fitness components were determined by 10 motor tests and body fatness by the sum of four skinfolds. SCP was defined as participation of at least once a week. Two thirds of all children were participating in a sports club. Girls' and boys' participation rate as well as those of overweight children and of children with overweight parents were comparable to their respective normal weight peers. In contrast, children from migrant families (odds ratio = 0.31; 95% confidence interval = 0.20-0.48) and from inactive parents (odds ratio = 0.16; 95% confidence interval = 0.05-0.45) participated significantly less (all P < 0.001). SCP was associated with endurance (0.53 > beta > 0.37, all P < 0.05) and partly with speed, strength, and coordination (0.41 > beta > 0.18, all P < 0.05). In overweight children and in children from overweight parents and migrant families, this association was not found. There was no association between SCP and fatness in any of the groups. SCP rates were high and were associated with higher levels of most fitness components in children. Participation rates were lower for children of migrant families and children from inactive parents. In addition, the association between SCP and fitness components was not found in overweight children and in children from overweight parents and migrant families.

Predictors of fatness and physical fitness in nine-year-old Icelandic school children

In recent years, the prevalence of overweight and obese children has increased in Iceland, as in most Westernized countries. The main objectives of this study were to assess predictors of fitness and fatness of 9-year-old school children in Iceland. In total, 488 subjects (73.3% participation rate) from 18 randomly selected primary schools participated in this cross-sectional study. Height, weight, sum of four skinfolds and other anthropometric measures were performed on all children. Fitness was assessed via a maximal cycle ergometer test in 229 children and of those, 177 wore Actigraph accelerometers to measure physical activity over five consecutive days. Questionnaires regarding family background and lifestyle were completed by 361 mothers and 332 fathers. The main findings from our study showed fatness, area of living and sex, as well as background variables, such as fathers' smoking and income, and number of sport practices attended per week were important predictors of fitness (best-fit model: R-sq=0.48, p<0.0001). In addition, parental body mass index (BMI), mothers' smoking and physical activity and children's objective measure of physical activity were found to be important predictors of children's fatness (best-fit model: R-sq=0.23, p<0.0001). These results provide information about predictors of fitness and fatness of 9-year-old children and emphasize the inverse association between the two. Further, our results suggest that mothers have a stronger influence on children's weight than fathers but the opposite may be true for fitness.

Maternal Size in Pregnancy and Body Composition in Children

Evidence suggests that babies' fat mass at birth is greater if their mothers were themselves fatter during pregnancy, but it is unclear whether this association persists into childhood. Our objective was to examine the relation between maternal size in pregnancy, early growth and body composition in children. We conducted a prospective cohort study in Southampton, United Kingdom. Participants included 216 9-yr-old children whose mothers had participated in a study of nutrition during pregnancy. Fat mass and lean mass were measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and adjusted for height (fat mass index and lean mass index). Fat mass index at age 9 yr was greater in children whose mothers had a larger mid-upper arm circumference in late pregnancy or a higher prepregnant body mass index. For 1 sd increase in maternal mid-upper arm circumference in late pregnancy, fat mass index rose by 0.26 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06-0.46] sd in boys and by 0.44 (95% CI 0.31-0.57) sd in girls. For 1 sd increase in maternal prepregnant BMI, fat mass index rose by 0.26 (95% CI 0.04-0.48) sd in boys and by 0.42 (95% CI 0.29-0.56) sd in girls. Mothers with a higher prepregnant body mass index or a larger mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy tend to have children with greater adiposity at age 9. The extent to which this is attributable to genetic factors, the influence of maternal lifestyle on that of her child, or maternal adiposity acting specifically during pregnancy on the child's fat mass cannot be determined in this study.

A systematic review of environmental correlates of obesity-related dietary behaviors in youth

There is increasing interest in the role the environment plays in shaping the dietary behavior of youth, particularly in the context of obesity prevention. An overview of environmental factors associated with obesity-related dietary behaviors among youth is needed to inform the development of interventions. A systematic review of observational studies on environmental correlates of energy, fat, fruit/vegetable, snack/fast food and soft drink intakes in children (4-12 years) and adolescents (13-18 years) was conducted. The results were summarized using the analysis grid for environments linked to obesity. The 58 papers reviewed mostly focused on sociocultural and economical-environmental factors at the household level. The most consistent associations were found between parental intake and children's fat, fruit/vegetable intakes, parent and sibling intake with adolescent's energy and fat intakes and parental education with adolescent's fruit/vegetable intake. A less consistent but positive association was found for availability and accessibility on children's fruit/vegetable intake. Environmental factors are predominantly studied at the household level and focus on sociocultural and economic aspects. Most consistent associations were found for parental influences (parental intake and education). More studies examining environmental factors using longitudinal study designs and validated measures are needed for solid evidence to inform interventions.

Assessing Body Fatness in Children

Assessing Body Fatness in Children

Estimates of Body Fat in Children by Hologic QDR‐2000 and QDR‐4500A Dual‐Energy X‐ray Absorptiometers Compared With Deuterium Dilution

We evaluated the accuracy with which the Hologic QDR-4500A and QDR-2000 densitometers measure fat mass (FM) in 95 children. FM was derived from total body water measured by deuterium dilution (DD) in all children, by QDR-4500A in 50, and by QDR-2000 in 45 children. Compared with DD, both instruments underestimated FM (QDR-4500A: 3.35 +/- 2.5 kg, P < 0.0001; QDR-2000: 1.05 +/- 1.5 kg, P < 0.0001). Both absorptiometers showed magnitude biases relative to DD (QDR-4500: r = +0.70, P < 0.001; QDR-2000: r = -0.51, P < 0.001). We conclude that neither densitometer is equivalent to DD for estimation of children's FM. The QDR-4500A's current calibration seems to provide an even greater underestimate of FM than the QDR-2000.

Relationships Between Physical Inactivity And Activity In Preschoolers

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in young children is increasing rapidly. The age at which lifestyle and environment become important factors in the development of this and other CVD risk factors has not been established. Previously reported data suggest that in children as young as 3 yrs. significant negative relationships exist between a child's body fatness and physical activity (PA)levels and the mother's BMI and PA. PURPOSE To evaluate the predictors of physical inactivity (PI) in preschool children. METHODS PA and PI was assessed with triaxial accelerometers (Stayhealthy, Inc.). A parent was instructed on how to place the monitor on the child upon awaking in the morning and to remove the monitor before sleep. Vector magnitude(VM), expressed as cts/min, was calculated from a unit's three accelerometers and taken as a measure of PA; <10cts/min was taken as a measure of PI. PA and PI was assessed during waking hours for three days(2 weekdays and 1 weekend day). Measures of body composition were determined using DXA, including percent body fat (PBF), lean (LBM), and fat mass (FM). Height(ht) and weight(wt) were measured and BMI was calculated. Spearman correlation and then stepwise linear regression (SLR) analyses were performed to determine which factors were associated with PI. RESULTS 286 children completed the assessments. Mean age of the children was 4.6 +/− .25 yrs. (range 3.7 to 5.3); 17% of the children were black and 56% were males. Activity cts/min (Actvm/min) was negatively correlated with PI (r=−.38, p<0.0001) and PBF (r=−.19, p<0.002) and positvely correlated with LBM (r=.17, p<0.006). In SLR analyses, we found that Actvm/min was the only significant predictor of PI (p<0.01). However, Actvm/min(p<0.005), ht(p<0.0001), wt(p<0.0001), and gender(p<0.0001) were significant predictors of PBF. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that in young children PI and PBF is negatively related to the intesnity of PA throughout the day and that ht, wt and gender are significantly related with PBF. Lifestyle and environment may play a role in overweight and obesity in preschool aged children.