Fat Analogue Research Articles

Potato starch altered the rheological, printing, and melting properties of 3D-printable fat analogs based on inulin emulsion-filled gels

Plant-based oil inks that imitate the texture and melting behavior of traditional animal fats using 3D printing have been developed. The influence of the incorporation of potato starch and the type of oil on rheology and meltability was investigated. The results showed that the dynamic modulus and hardness of fat analogs increased, whereas fat analog meltability decreased with an increase in potato starch content. Coconut oil and soybean oil-containing fat analogs incorporated with proper potato starch levels exhibited good printability and similar meltability to commercial beef and pork fats. The addition of potato starch suppressed fat analog meltability as it disrupted the inulin matrix. Fat analogs containing coconut oil could be texturized at temperatures lower than those required for their soybean oil counterparts. The fat analogs were solid at room temperature, demonstrated good printability, and imitated the melting behavior of fat contained in real meat throughout the cooking process.

Preparation and evaluation of protein‐based fat substitute on the stuffing properties of Chinese Dumpling

SummaryIn the present study, a fat substitute with the protein complex of soy protein isolate (SPI) and egg white protein (EWP) was prepared. The suitable gel formation temperature was 95 °C; the gel formation temperature was found to increase with pH. The gel system with the lowest hardness and easiest microparticulation was identified at the optimal concentration of the protein blend (9.09%). Taking the water holding capacity (WHC), texture and rheological properties into account, the optimal proportion of SPI and EWP was 1:1 (w/w). The average size of the protein particles was 4.53 μm under the microparticulation condition of 10 000 rad min−1 for 3 min. The application of the microparticulate protein blend as a fat analogue in dumpling stuffing was studied and evaluated by sensory analysis, texture analysis, and chroma analysis. The best substitution ratio of the fat analogue was 5%. The fat substitute prepared in this study could be a candidate for healthy food.

Testing the Food Experience in Healthy Human Volunteers: a Proof-of-Concept Study.

For a healthy food to be introduced to the consumer's diet, it has to be attractive, yet testing for food acceptance and the sensory postprandial responses is still not standardized. The main objective of this study was to demonstrate that healthier foods can be obtained without impact on the responses to ingestion. A randomized, cross-over, double-blind, pilot study in non-obese, healthy men (n=8) comparing the responses to a standard sausage rich in animal fat (mortadella) versus a modified product based on a plant-derived fat analogue and an aroma. Palatability and postprandial sensations were measured on 10 cm scales and brain activity was evaluated by functional magnetic resonance imaging before and after each meal on separate days. Both meals were rated equally palatable and induced the same degree of homeostatic sensations (satiety, fullness) with a similar hedonic dimension (improved mood and digestive well-being). Both meals induced similar changes in brain connectivity: decreased activity in the frontal-parietal, basal ganglia and thalamus, visual occipital, sensory-motor, temporal superior and in the "default-mode" networks, while increased activity was detected in the network associated with white matter. A substantial improvement in the nutritional profile of food can be achieved without affecting the responses to ingestion.

Three-Dimensional Topographic Surface Changes in Response to Volumization of the Lateral Suborbicularis Oculi Fat Compartment.

Autologous fat grafting is an increasingly preferred method for aesthetic facial rejuvenation. The authors' group previously described the concept of "lipotopography" as topographic surface changes that occur with fat grafting to discrete facial fat compartments. The purpose of this study was to define the "augmentation zone" of the lateral suborbicularis oculi fat compartment to understand the topographical surface changes following augmentation. Nine cadaver hemifaces were injected with fat analogue at intervals from 1 to 4 cc. Three-dimensional photographs were taken at baseline and following each 1-cc incremental injection. The interval surface changes were calculated using three-dimensional software including perimeter, diameter, and projection. The augmentation zone of the lateral suborbicularis oculi fat compartment was characterized by a consistent shape and boundary. The shape was an elongated oval bound superiorly by the lid-cheek junction and inferiorly at the level of the zygomaticocutaneous ligament. Vertical and horizontal diameter and perimeter showed initial increases between 1 and 2 cc and then a plateau between 2 and 3 cc. Projection changes demonstrated an initial slow increase from 1 to 2 cc injection followed by nearly linear growth from 2 to 4 cc. Three-dimensional photography and computer analysis provide tools to understand the surface anatomy change in response to fat grafting specific facial fat compartments. Targeted volumization of the lateral suborbicularis oculi fat compartment also results in a unique surface change with consistent shape and anatomical boundaries. The lid-cheek junction and zygomaticocutaneous ligament were observed to restrict the expansion of fat analogue for all injection volumes. Therapeutic, V.

Partial replacement of pork backfat with konjac gel in Northeastern Thai fermented sausage (Sai Krok E-san).

ObjectiveThe influence of konjac gel level on fermentation process and product qualities were assessed to evaluate the feasibility of using it as fat analog in Northeastern Thai fermented sausage (Sai Krok E-san).MethodsFive treatments of fermented sausages were formulated by replacing pork backfat with 0%, 7.5%, 22.5%, and 30% konjac gel. The changes in lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and important physicochemical properties of samples were assessed during 3 days of fermentation. After the end of fermentation at day 3, water activity (aw), instrumental texture, color, microbial counts, and sensory evaluation were compared. The best product formulation using konjac for replacing pork back fat were selected and used to compare proximate composition and energy value with control sample (30% pork backfat).ResultsAn increase in konjac gel resulted in higher values of LAB, total acidity, and proteolysis index with lower pH and lipid oxidation during 3 days of product fermentation (p< 0.05). It was noted that larger weight loss and product shrinkage during fermentation was observed with higher levels of konjac gel (p<0.05). The resulting sausage at day 3 with 15% to 30% konjac gel exhibited higher hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, springiness, and chewiness than control (p<0.05). The external color of samples with 22.5% to 30% konjac gel were redder than others (p<0.05). Mold, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli in all finished products were lower than detectable levels. Product with 15% konjac gel had the highest scores of sourness linking and overall acceptability (p<0.05).ConclusionThe product with 15% of konjac gel was the optimum formulation for replacing pork backfat. It had higher sensorial scores of sourness and overall acceptability than control with less negative impact on external appearance (product shrinkage) and weight loss. Moreover, it provided 46% fat reduction and 32% energy reduction than control.

Ultrasound-assisted preparation of a human milk fat analog emulsion: Understanding factors affecting formation and stability

The aim of this work was to investigate the application of ultrasound in the formation of a stable human milk fat (HMF) analog emulsion with macronutrients (lecithin and protein) as emulsifiers required for infant formula, at low levels and within the ranges of infant formula standards; in addition, the aim was to evaluate the stability of the emulsion to various environmental stresses. Increasing the lecithin concentration and decreasing the HMF analog amount yielded a stable HMF analog emulsion with a smaller mean particle size. Increasing the ultrasonic power and time favored decreasing particle sizes. The emulsion obtained under optimized conditions was stable at a pH of 6.4–8.0, at heating temperatures of 50 °C–90 °C, and with sugar levels and sodium ion strengths that met infant formula standards. Storage below 25 °C for 7 days did not substantially change the physicochemical stability of the emulsion. The results provide information useful for manufacturing high-quality infant formula; ultrasonic emulsification can be used to produce a stable HMF analog emulsion using protein and lecithin at low levels to meet infant formula standards.

A low trans margarine fat analog to beef tallow for healthier formulations: Optimization of enzymatic interesterification using soybean oil and fully hydrogenated palm oil

The health hazard of tallow and partial hydrogenated oils is well known in margarine productions. For this, food manufactures are urged to develop novel alternatives for healthier margarine formulations. The highest interesterification degree acquired with lipase Lipozyme 435 standing out from other catalysts (solid acid, sodium hydroxide and methoxide) was applied to produce low trans margarine fat analogs to beef tallow (BT) with the blend of soybean oil (SO) and fully hydrogenated palm oil (FHPO) in a mass ratio of 4:3. Reaction parameters like enzyme dosage (4.2 wt%), temperature (95 °C) and time (245 min) were optimized using the Box-Behnken design. Regarding fatty acid profiles, triacylglycerol species, solid fat content, polymorphism, melting and crystallization behaviors, the resulting interesterified oil was characterized in comparison with BT, FHPO and the SO-FHPO blend so as to prove its potential in formulating low trans fat margarines because of desirable physicochemical properties and polymorphs.

Preparation of structured lipids enriched with medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols by enzymatic interesterification for infant formula

Single cell oils (SCOs) are considered as important sources of the essential fatty acids (EFAs) such as arachidonic acid (ARA), which is of great importance for infant’s growth and development. Medium-chain triacylglycerols (MCTs) induce the residual glyceride lipolysis, which improve fat absorption, and thus reduce its deposition in infants. Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCTs)-rich structured lipids (SLs) combine these benefits, and they can be delivered to infants in an easy way. In this study, MLCTs-rich SLs were synthesized by lipase-catalyzed interesterification of ARASCO with MCTs in a solvent-free system. Four commercial immobilized lipases from different sources were compared for their efficiency in the production of MLCTs yield. The results indicated that the highest yield of MLCTs was achieved by Lipozyme 435 from Candida antarctica as a biocatalyst. The best reaction conditions were as follows; enzyme load 8% (w/w), reaction temperature 90°C, reaction time of 3h, and substrates mole ratio 1:1. Under these conditions, MLCTs were obtained in a yield of 53.75%. Thermoprofile displayed that the MLCTs-rich SLs melted below body temperature of 37°C. The obtained MLCTs-rich SLs can be suggested as a nutritional and functional fat analogue with potential applications in infant formula industry.

The effect of low-fat beef patties formulated with a low-energy fat analogue enriched in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on lipid oxidation and sensory attributes

A new low-energy gelled emulsion containing algae oil was developed as animal fat replacer. Its stability was evaluated under different storage conditions: 4V (4°C/vacuum), 4NV (4°C/no vacuum), 25V (25°C/vacuum) and 25NV (25°C/no vacuum). According to moisture, hardness, color and lipid oxidation data, 4°C under vacuum (4V) was selected as the best condition. Once the gelled emulsion was characterized, its effectiveness as fat analogue was demonstrated in beef patties. Reformulated patties were produced with 100% of animal fat replacement and compared to conventional patties (9%fat). A 70%fat reduction was achieved in the new patties, mainly due to a reduction in the saturated fatty acids. Also, decreased n-6 (76%lower content) and increased eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (55%higher content) were noticed in the new formulation. The incorporation of the gelled emulsion containing reduced amount of n-6 fatty acids and increased amounts of long chain n-3 fatty acids (EPA+DHA) reduced the oxidation status of the patties and their sensory evaluation resulted in acceptable scores.

Preparation of human milk fat analogue by enzymatic interesterification reaction using palm stearin and fish oil.

Palm stearin fractionate (PSF), obtained from palm stearin by further fractionation with solvents and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) rich fish oil (FO) were subjected to interesterification at 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:1 and 3:1 substrate molar ratio and catalyzed by lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosa for obtaining a product with triacylglycerol (TAG) structure similar to that of human milk fat (HMF). The parameters (molar ratio and time) of the interesterification reaction were standardized. The temperature of 60°C and enzyme concentration of 10% (w/w) were kept fixed as these parameters were previously optimized. The reactions were carried out in a stirred tank reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer for 6, 12, 18 and 24h. The blends were analyzed for fatty acid (FA) composition of both total FAs and those at the sn-2 position after pancreatic lipase hydrolysis. All the blended products were subjected to melting point determination and free fatty acid content. Finally, blend of PSF and FO at 2:1 molar ratio with 69.70% palmitic acid (PA) content and 12h of reaction produced the desired product with 75.98% of PA at sn-2 position, 0.27% arachidonic acid (AA), 3.43% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 4.25% docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and with melting point of 42°C. This study portrayed a successful preparation of TAG containing unique FA composition i.e. ≥ 70% of the PA, by weight, were esterified at the sn-2 position which could be used in infant formulation with health benefits of n-3 PUFAs.

Infant Formula Fat Analogs and Human Milk Fat: New Focus on Infant Developmental Needs.

Human breast milk is generally and universally recognized as the optimal choice for nutrition during the first year of life. In certain cases in which it is not feasible to breast-feed the infant or the breast milk is not sufficient, especially in the case of preterm infants, infant formula is the next best alternative to provide nutrition to nurture the infant. Therefore, it is highly important that the nutrient composition of the infant formula is as close to breast milk as possible for proper growth and development of the infant. However, human milk is a complex dynamic matrix, and therefore significant research has been done and is still ongoing to fully understand and mimic human breast milk, particularly its fat composition. Lipids play a critical role in infant nutrition. A number of advances have been made in infant formula lipid content and composition so that formula can better simulate or mimic the nutritional functions of human maternal milk.

A “reduced-pressure distillation” method to prepare zein-based fat analogue for application in mayonnaise formulation

In this study, the zein extracted from distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is utilized to produce a fat analogue, by employing a simple ”reduced-pressure distillation microparticulation“ method. The optimal conditions for preparing the fat analogue are as follows: a zein concentration of 3 w/v% (based on 60 v/v% ethanol water), an agitator speed of 200 rpm, a xanthan gum amount of 20 wt% (based on zein mass) and a heating temperature of 50 °C. The zein-based fat analogue obtained has a volume-weighted mean diameter (D[4, 3]) of about 16 μm, which is then applied in the formulation of mayonnaise, at fat substitution ratios of 0% (full-fat), 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%, respectively. Based on the appearance, stability, total calorific value, as well as rheological, microstructure and sensory analyses, it may be concluded that the fat substitution ratio of no more than 40% is acceptable. This paper illustrates another high-value added use of zein.

Preparation of Infant Formula Fat Analog Containing Capric Acid and Enriched with DHA and ARA at the sn‐2 Position

AbstractAn infant formula fat analog with capric acid mostly esterified at the sn‐1,3 positions, and substantial amounts of palmitic, docosahexaenoic (DHA), and arachidonic (ARA) acids at the sn‐2 position, was prepared by physically blending enzymatically synthesized structured lipids (SL) with vegetable oils. The components of the blend included high sn‐2 palmitic acid SL enriched with capric acid (SLCA), canola oil (CAO), corn oil (CO), high sn‐2 DHA (DHAOm), and high sn‐2 ARA (ARAOm) enzymatically modified oils. Each component was proportionally blended to match the fatty acid profile of commercial fat blends used for infant formula. The infant formula fat analog (IFFA1) was characterized for total and positional fatty acids (FA), triacylglycerol (TAG) molecular species, thermal behavior, and tocopherol content. IFFA1 contained 17.37 mol% total palmitic acid of which nearly 35 % was located at the sn‐2 position. The total capric acid content was 13.93 mol%. The content of DHA and ARA were 0.49 mol% (48.18 % at sn‐2) and 0.57 mol% (35.80 % at sn‐2), respectively. The predominant TAG were OPO (24.09 %), POP (15.70 %), OOO (11.53 %), and CLC (7.79 %). The melting completion and crystallization onset temperatures were 18.65 and −2.19 °C, respectively. The total tocopherol content was 566.45 μg/g. This product might be suitable for commercial production of infant formulas.

Enzymatic Synthesis of High sn‐2 DHA and ARA Modified Oils for the Formulation of Infant Formula Fat Analogues

AbstractHigh sn‐2 docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid oils (DHAOm and ARAOm, respectively) were produced independently via enzymatic interesterification of DHA‐rich and ARA‐rich single cell oils (DHASCO and ARASCO, respectively) using a mix of immobilized lipases, Lipozyme® TL IM and Novozym® 435 (weight ratio 1:1) as the biocatalyst system. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to model and optimize the reactions conditions. Three independent variables, namely reaction time, reaction temperature, and enzyme load, were investigated in DHAOm and ARAOm models. The prediction power of the model was further confirmed by solvent‐free scale‐up reactions of 100 g per batch. Final results showed that DHAOm contained 46.53 mol% of total DHA (49.70 % at the sn‐2 position), while ARAOm contained 47.25 mol% of total ARA (36.08 % at the sn‐2 position). This represents a significant increment in the amount of DHA and ARA at the sn‐2 position when compared to DHASCO (47.8 mol%; 30.30 % at the sn‐2) and ARASCO (47.79 mol%; 28.50 % at the sn‐2), respectively. These products have potential as additions to infant formulas where DHA and ARA supplementation is required.

APA-style human milk fat analogue from silkworm pupae oil: Enzymatic production and improving storage stability using alkyl caffeates.

Silkworm pupae oil derived from reeling waste is a rich source of α-linolenic acid (ALA), which has multipal applications. ALAs were added in sn-1, 3 positions in a triacylglycerol (TAG) to produce an APA-human milk fat analogues (APA-HMFAs, A: α-linolenic acid, P: palmitic acid). The optimum condition is that tripalmitin to free fatty acids of 1:12 (mole ratio) at 65 °C for 48 h using lipase Lipozyme RM IM. Results show that, the major TAG species that comprised APA-HMFAs were rich in ALA and palmitic acid, which contained 64.52% total unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and 97.05% PA at the sn-2 position. The melting point of APA was −27.5 °C which is much lower than tripalmitin (40.5 °C) indicating more plastic character. In addition, the practical application of alkyl caffeates as liposoluble antioxidants in APA was developed. Alkyl caffeate showed a superior IC50 (1.25–1.66 μg/mL) compared to butyl hydroxy anisd (1.67 μg/mL) and L-ascorbic acid-6-palmitate (L-AP) (1.87 μg/mL) in DPPH analysis. The addition of ethyl caffeate to oil achieved a higher UFAs content (73.58%) at high temperatures. Overall, APA was obtained from silkworm pupae oil successfully, and the addition of caffeates extended storage ranges for APA-HMFAs.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Infant Formula Fat Analog Enriched with Capric Acid

AbstractA structured lipid (SL) with a substantial amount of palmitic acid at the sn‐2 position and enriched with capric acid (C), was produced in two enzymatic interesterification stages by using immobilized lipase, Lipozyme® TL IM (Novozymes North America Inc., Franklinton, NC, USA). The substrates for the reactions were high melting point palm stearin, high oleic sunflower oil and tricaprin. The SL was characterized for total and positional fatty acid profiles, triacylglycerol (TAG) molecular species, free fatty acid content, melting and crystallization profiles. The final SL contained 20.13 mol% of total palmitic acid, of which nearly 40 % was located at the sn‐2 position. The total capric acid content was 21.22 mol%, mostly at the sn‐1 and sn‐3 positions. The predominant TAGs in the SL were oleic–palmitic–oleic, POP and CLC. The melting completion and crystallization onset temperatures of the SL were 27.7 and 6.1 °C, respectively. The yield for the overall reaction was 90 wt%. This SL might be totally or partially used in commercial fat blends for infant formula.

Tomato peel powder as fat replacement in low‐fat sausages: Formulations with mechanically crushed powder exhibit higher stability than those with airflow ultra‐micro crushed powder

This study investigated the effect of addition of tomato peel powder, with different particle sizes as fat replacement, on the fatty acid composition and textural properties in low‐fat sausage for 48 days. Results indicated that the hardness of low‐fat sausages with no tomato powder (LFN) was significantly higher (P &lt; 0.05) than that of the other groups, and springiness decreased slightly at a higher powder level. During storage, the polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio of high‐fat samples with no powder (HFN) and low‐fat samples with no powder (LFN) decreased significantly relative to that of the other sausage samples (P &lt; 0.05). Furthermore, a slight increase in yellowness was detected in most samples. Low‐fat sausage with powder prepared by airflow ultra‐micro crushing had lightness and redness values of 54.26 and 11.36, respectively. Thus, these values can be increased effectively by adding a small amount of tomato peel powder treated by the airflow ultra‐microcrushing method.Practical applications: Tomato peel, an undervalued agro‐industrial waste of the tomato juice industry, contains non‐digestible fiber content that offers several physiological effects and therapeutic applications. To the best of our knowledge no studies have reported on the application of tomato powder as a fat analog in sausage and its contribution to the fatty acid and textural quality of sausage. The study reported here investigates the interactions between particles of tomato powder and fat levels on the overall quality of sausages.Comparison of two different crushing systems show that TBARS of sausage containing airflow ultra‐micro crushing‐prepared tomato peel powder is higher than that of the sausages with conventional mechanical crushing‐prepared powder. Low‐fat sausage with powder prepared by airflow ultra‐micro crushing had lightness and redness. Overall, incorporation of tomato peel powder in the formulation successfully reduced the animal fat and improved the color and TBARS values of the final product.

Oxidative stability of structured lipid-based infant formula emulsion: Effect of antioxidants

The effect of permitted antioxidants, including α-tocopherol, β-carotene, ascorbyl palmitate, ascorbic acid, citric acid, and their combinations, on the lipid oxidation of structured lipid (SL)-based infant formula (IF) was evaluated. The 3.5% oil-in-water IF emulsion was formulated with a human milk fat analogue enriched with docosahexaenoic acid and stearidonic acid, and the antioxidants were added at 0.005% and 0.02% of the oil. The peroxide value, anisidine value, and hexanal concentration of emulsion samples were measured over a 28-day period. The results showed that whether a compound exhibited antioxidant behavior depended on its mechanism of action, polarity, concentration, and environmental conditions. The most effective antioxidant was ascorbyl palmitate at 0.005%, and a synergistic antioxidant effect was found between α-tocopherol and β-carotene. A high correlation was observed between anisidine value and hexanal content. Our findings have important implications for the successful incorporation of SL into IF products for infant nutrition and health.

One step procedure for desalting salty egg white and preparing fat analogue and its application in mayonnaise

In this work, a simple and economical way to desalt salty egg white and prepare fat analogue was developed. Moreover, Desalination of salty egg white and preparation of fat analogue was realized at the same time. The optimal technology for obtaining fat analogue was: egg white concentration of 6%, pH of 4.9, heating temperature of 90 °C and milling time of 15 min. Then application of micrometre-scale egg white gel as fat analogue in mayonnaise was studied. Fat was partially substituted by micrometre-scale egg white gel at levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, which were referred to S10, S20, S30, S40, respectively, while the full fat (S0) mayonnaise without egg white gel substitution was used as the control experiment. The effects of substitution ratio on mayonnaise was determined by rheology measurements, colour measurements, optical microscope observation and caloric values analysis, which indicated that fat in mayonnaise substituted with egg white gel of not more than 30% was acceptable. Meanwhile, the product has good storage stability in a certain storage period. This study shows good potential for micronized desalted egg white gel to be used as fat analogue in mayonnaise.

Fatty Acids Profile, Oxidative and Hydrolysis Stability of Virgin Coconut Oil and Palm Stearin Based Human Milk Fat Analog

The objectives of the research are to evaluate fatty acids profile, oxidative and hydrolysis stability of human milk fat (HMF) analog by using virgin coconut oil (VCO) and palm stearin as raw materials. The HMF analog was synthesized through enzymatic interesterification catalyzed by lipase from Rhizomucor miehei. The fatty acid profiles of interesterification products were monitored using gas chromatography. Oxidative stability test was carried out for up to 72 hours at 60oC. The peroxide value was measured during 0, 24, 48 and 72 hours of storage duration. Hydrolysis stability test was held for up to 8 days at room temperature. The free fatty acid content was monitored during 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 days of storage. The results showed that the resulted HMF analog having high percentage of palmitic acid in the sn-2 position, similar to that of HMF. The palmitic acid content in the sn-2 position was around 39.71%. The MCFAs were esterified in the sn-1 and sn-3 position and the main fatty acid constituent was lauric acid of 39.37%. The obtained HMF analog was stable to oxidative and hydrolysis deterioration as indicated by the peroxide value and free fatty acid content during storage.