Fast Track Land Reform Programme Research Articles

Artisanal Gold Mining and Farming: Livelihood Linkages and Labour Dynamics after Land Reforms in Zimbabwe

While the rural development consequences of Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme have been heavily debated, there is a dearth of literature focusing on the post-land reform inter-relations between artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) and farming. This article discusses the growing ASGM sector, encapsulated by the phrase ‘mari yaputika’/‘gold has detonated’, examining the impacts of ‘liberating’ mineral resources in farming areas previously inaccessible to the rural poor. Drawing on research in Mhondoro Ngezi District, we argue for more subtle understandings of smallholder farming/ASGM linkages in relation to changing labour and class dynamics, challenging accounts that under-recognise the multifaceted interconnectedness of artisanal mining and farming.

Labour after Land Reform: The Precarious Livelihoods of Former Farmworkers in Zimbabwe

ABSTRACTWhat happens to labour when major redistributive land reform restructures a system of settler colonial agriculture? This article examines the livelihoods of former farmworkers on large‐scale commercial farms who still live in farm compounds after Zimbabwe's land reform. Through a mix of surveys and in‐depth biographical interviews, four different types of livelihood are identified, centred on differences in land access. These show how diverse, but often precarious, livelihoods are being carved out, representing the ‘fragmented classes of labour’ in a restructured agrarian economy. The analysis highlights the tensions between gaining new freedoms, notably through access to land, and being subject to new livelihood vulnerabilities. The findings are discussed in relation to wider questions about the informalization of the economy and the role of labour and employment in a post‐settler agrarian economy, where the old ‘farmworker’ label no longer applies.

FROM CATTLE RANCHING TO WILDLIFE CONSERVANCIES: FIXING AN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL MISMATCH IN THE SOUTH-EAST LOWVELD OF ZIMBABWE

Following an increase in incidences of severe droughts in the south-east lowveld and other arid regions of the country since the mid-1980s, many large-scale commercial farmers have shifted from cattle ranching to wildlife production. This study assesses the ecological success of the change in landuse from cattle ranging to wildlife production in the south-east lowveld of Zimbabwe with a special focus on Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve. The study also examines the threats to the establishment of wildlife production and management activities in the study area and other similarly arid areas in the country. The study mainly relied on document analysis, interviews and observation for the collection of relevant data. The study revealed a successful ecological establishment of Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve evidenced by an increase in both faunal and floral wildlife since its establishment in 1994. The adoption of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme by government since 2000 has been identified as the major threat to the further growth and expansion of the wildlife sector in Zimbabwe, since many game farms and conservancies have also been earmarked for resettlement. Most of the households that have been resettled in the wildlife producing areas are practicing crop and livestock production, which apparently do not match with the agro-ecological conditions of these areas. There is need for a reassessment of the land reform programme in the wildlife producing regions of the country towards the exclusive establishment of game farms and conservancies, as these are the most suitable landuse activities in these arid areas. Article visualizations:

Youth, agriculture and land reform in Zimbabwe: Experiences from a communal area and resettlement scheme in semi-arid Matabeleland, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACTThree decades of land reform in Zimbabwe ended in an ambiguous victory for youth. Focus on the cumulative outcome, in terms of scale and scope, led to conclusions that the exercise was a success, which obscured the resultant forms of exclusion. This article attempts to sketch an analytical context in which the dynamics of Zimbabwe’s land reform may be understood. It focuses at the broader policy and societal levels, and investigates the socio-political dynamics, and their combined effects on landing the economy for youth. It highlights the challenges associated with poverty reduction through land and agriculture for a semi-proletarian youth, and suggests that a policy of agricultural modernisation is unlikely to succeed in changing the economic circumstances of young people.

A survey of communication effectiveness by agricultural extension in the Gweru district of Zimbabwe

This study is a qualitative survey of the effectiveness of communication between agricultural extension personnel and smallholder farmers in the Gweru district of Zimbabwe. Extension communication, particularly, has a large bearing on the sustainability of agricultural developments projects. The apparent lack of information, education and training during the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) of Zimbabwe contributed to low agricultural production and productivity which could consequently lead to continuing food insecurity in the country. The findings indicate a discrepancy between work experience and qualifications of the extension workers which could imply a lack in the quality of knowledge, information and skills imparted to the resettled farmers. Further findings indicate a lack of stakeholder analysis in designing agricultural communication projects and an absence of a multi-media communication approach to enhance adoption of agricultural innovations. The study concludes that agricultural extension is not adequate due to multiple resource constraints. The findings imply that agricultural communication should be integrative. A model of smallholder agriculture stakeholder mobilization has been developed to encourage effective agricultural communication and productivity therein.

CHALLENGES OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY IN ZIMBABWE BETWEEN 1960 AND 2000

This paper examines the main challenges which confronted Zimbabwe’s tourism sector between 1960 and 2000. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965 led to the imposition of sanctions in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). This development set the stage for a long period of international isolation at regional and global levels. The negative image resulting from this event undermined tourism in the country. This was followed by the prosecution of the armed struggle between 1966 and 1979. Security threats undermined tourist arrivals in the country especially after the shooting down of the viscount by members of the Zimbabwe African People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) in 1978. Soon after independence in 1980, there was a surge in tourist arrivals into the country due to improved security within the country. However, the dissident menace in both Matabeleland and Midlands from 1982 to 1987 reversed the gains which had been realized at independence. After the signing of the unity, accord in 1987 there was a drastic improvement in security and this boosted tourist arrivals. However, most tourists came from neighboring South Africa and Zambia. Since some of them stayed with their relatives in Zimbabwe, they did not benefit tourist facilities such as hotels. Zimbabwe has drawn most of its tourists from its immediate neighbors while Kenya attracts tourists from as far as Europe and North America. In 2000, Zimbabwe’s tourism industry suffered yet another dent with the launch of the Fast Track Land Reform Program (FTLRP). Due to the violent and bloody nature of the event, it attracted negative publicity from the media which further undermined the tourist arrivals in the country. To date the country has lagged behind Kenya in attracting European and North American tourists who bring the much needed foreign currency. Article visualizations:

Carbon footprinting of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) production systems in Zimbabwe

Agriculture contributes significantly to the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Farmers need to fine-tune agricultural practices to balance the trade-offs between increasing productivity in order to feed a growing population and lowering GHG emissions to mitigate climate change and its impact on agriculture. We conducted a survey on the major cultural practices in four potato production systems in Zimbabwe, namely large-scale commercial, communal area, A1 and A2 resettlement production systems. The resettlement production systems were formed from the radical Fast Track Land Reform Programme initiated in 2000, which changed the landscape of commercial agriculture in Zimbabwe. We used survey data as an input into the ‘Cool Farm Tool – Potato’ model. The model calculates the contributions of various production operations to total GHG emission. Experienced growers were targeted. The average carbon footprint calculated was 251 kg CO2 eq./t potato harvested, ranging from 216 kg CO2 eq./t to 286 kg CO2 eq./t in the communal area and A2 resettlement production systems, respectively. The major drivers of the GHG emissions were fertilizer production and soil-related field emissions, which together accounted for on average 56% of the total emissions across all production systems. Although mitigation options were not assessed, the model outputs the factors/farm operations and their respective emission estimates allowing growers to choose the inputs and operations to reduce their carbon footprint. Opportunities for benchmarking as an incentive to improve performance exist given the large variation in GHG emission between individual growers.

ZIMBABWE’S PARKS AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY: CHALLENGES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Over the centuries, there has been a widespread destruction of wildlife species at the global level. Some of the causes of wildlife extinctions have been the loss of habitats due to global population growth rates. Some areas which used to be habitats for wildlife have been turned into commercial farms, towns and cities. In traditional Africa wildlife co-existed peacefully with human populations. Although some animals were occasionally hunted for meat and ivory, this practice could never upset the ecological balance due to the primitive nature of the weapons which were employed. However, with the advent of colonialism, many animal species were driven to extinction due to the efficiency of the weapons which were used. The use of fire arms in hunting expeditions became a major threat to animals such as elephants, rhinos, buffaloes, lions and impalas. While in North America many species such as the passenger pigeon disappeared, in Africa many have survived although they are still under threat from poachers. This paper examines the challenges which confront the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (PWMA) in the conservation of wildlife species such as elephants, lions, rhinos, buffaloes and impala. It focuses on the challenges which have occurred since 2000 during the ‘Fast Track Land Reform Programme’ (FTLRP). It is based on information which was collected in October, 2017. This involved the use of secondary and primary sources of information including interviews and questionnaires. Article visualizations:

Political ecology of agrarian transformation: The nexus of mining and agriculture in Sanyati District, Zimbabwe

This article contributes to debates on livelihood diversification in rural Africa. It analyzes the process of re-peasantization under Zimbabwe's Fast Track land and agrarian reform in which large-scale commercial farming spaces were reconfigured into mostly peasant territories. The paper presents findings from a decade-long study of three communities resettled under the A1 and A2 Fast Track Land Reform (FTLRP) settlement variants in the Sanyati District, Zimbabwe. It explores land recipients' relationship with the physical environment, reasons for particular land-use activities and control, and livelihood strategies. The framework of political ecology is utilized to examine the complex and dynamic agrarian strategies of land recipients that involve the intertwining of farming and artisanal small-scale mining (ASM). The findings show that farmers, in mineral rich regions, consciously engage in ASM as part of their livelihood provisioning, because income from mining provides valuable investments in agrarian institutions, social networks and markets. In addition, some farmers perceived ASM as a way to secure tenure on their landholdings. This paper challenges the efficacy of the hegemonic narrative that positions ASM in sub Saharan Africa as a singular process of de-agrarianization or ‘branching out’ from agriculture.

Acrimony or Harmony? The Case of Relations Between Mother Schools and their Satellite Schools in a Selected District in Masvingo Province

This study was motivated the emergence of a new type of school that was ushered by the land reform in Zimbabwe. The new schools which are termed satellite schools were attached to established schools. By virtue of having a satellite school attached to the established school, the later was termed the mother schools. This study unpacks the relationship between the mother schools and their satellite schools in a selected district. The study was guided two research questions; How do mother schools relate with their satellite schools? Why are mother schools engaging with satellite schools in these particular ways? The study purposively sampled five mother school heads and five satellite school heads. Data for the study was generated through key informant interviews. This paper established that the relationship between mother schools and satellite schools had elements of both acrimony and harmony in a selected district. The relationship between the mother school schools and satellite schools was influenced by the responsible authority, enrolment of the mother school, the distance between the mother school and the satellite school as well as social capital. From the findings of this study, the government is recommended to draw a policy guiding the setting-up of satellite schools as well as their interaction with their mother schools.

In Search of Development: Zimbabwe Exemplar From 2000 to 2015

The period 2000 to 2015 epitomised Zimbabwe’s relentless search for development as patronised by major policies that were meant to spur socio-economic development. Using a synthesis of qualitative collection methods – such as key informant interviews, in depth interviews and documentary analysis, the article interrogates and evaluate the impact of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP), Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) quasifiscal activities, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment drive, as well as the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIMASSET) on the trajectory of development. This period portrayed Zimbabwe as a country of contradictions, ambivalence and contestations. The article unequivocally argues that development policies in Zimbabwe were formulated by government as a reaction to political threats – and that for Zimbabwe to achieve its development goals, policies should not be a reaction to political threats; but genuine action by government to improve the living conditions of the people.

Land, Agrarian Reform in Zimbabwe Viewed from a Transformative Social Policy Perspective

Much of the scholarly work on Zimbabwe’s land and agrarian reform has largely been premised on the “livelihoods”, “political economy” and the “neo-patrimonial” approaches; much to the neglect of other frameworks. This article attempts to analyse Zimbabwe’s post-2000 land reform experience from a transformative social policy perspective, utilising empirical data obtained from the 2013/14 Sam Moyo African Institute for Agrarian Studies’ six-district-baseline survey. The article argues that although the Fast Track Land Reform Programme has met the redistributive element of the transformative social policy agenda, the productive, protection and social cohesion potentials of the programme are still to reach their maximum potential due to a number of factors. Although a fraction of surveyed households is accumulating, the majority of the peasantry is shown to be struggling due to fundamental, domestic macro-economic challenges; constrained capacity of the state and external factors such as international isolation, which the country continues to face. Primary data utilised for this article was collected by distributing questionnaires in 1090 households in the districts of Chipinge, Chiredzi, Goromonzi, Kwekwe, Mangwe and Zvimba, which represent the country’s five agro-ecological zones. The data utilised was also collected from all the three settlement models (A1, A2 and Communal Areas).

Settlers, Rhodesians, and Supremacists: White Authors and the Fast Track Land Reform Program in Post-2000 Zimbabwe

Texts written by some white Zimbabweans in the post-2000 dispensation are largely shaped by their authors’ endeavor to contest the loss of lands they held prior to the onset of the Fast Track Land Reform Program (FTLRP). Written as memoirs, these texts are bound by the tendency to fall back on colonial settler values, Rhodesian identities, and Hegelian supremacist ideas in their narration of aspects of a conflict in which tropes such as truth, justice, patriotism, and belonging were not only evoked but also reframed. This article explores manifestations of this tendency in Eric Harrison’s Jambanja (2006) and Jim Barker’s Paradise Plundered: The Story of a Zimbabwean Farm (2007). The discussion unfolds against the backdrop of the realization that much of the literary-critical scholarship on land reform in post-2000 Zimbabwe focuses on texts written by black Zimbabweans and does not attend to the panoply of ways in which some white-authored texts yearn for colonial structures of power and privilege. This article evinces that the reincarnation of colonial settler values, Rhodesian identities, and Hegelian supremacist ideas undermines the discourse of white entitlement more than it promotes it. Values and identities of the colonial yesteryear on which this discourse is premised are not only anachronistic in the 21st century; they also obey the self-other binary at the heart of the patriotic history pedestal that was instrumental in the Zimbabwean regime’s post-2000 populist deployment of the land grievance to reconstruct itself as the only and indispensable champion of African interests in Zimbabwe.

Carnivore conservation under land use change: the status of Zimbabwe’s cheetah population after land reform

Large terrestrial carnivores especially have experienced substantial declines in range and numbers. Changes in land use are a main driver of such declines, yet various developing countries have accelerated land use change through state-led land reform programmes. One of the most renowned land reform programmes is Zimbabwe’s fast track land reform programme (FTLRP), which resulted in fast and compulsory subdivision of large commercial farms into indigenized small scale commercial and subsistence farms. Several case studies have shown an impact of the FTLRP on wildlife, however, its effect on wildlife populations at a nationwide scale remains largely unknown. Due to its wide-ranging nature, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is particularly vulnerable to changes in land use. In this study I used questionnaire survey and citizen science data to determine the population status and distribution of the cheetah 15 years after introduction of the FTLRP. I also assessed the level of human-cheetah conflict, and attitudes of commercial and subsistence farmers towards cheetah. I found dramatic range contractions and population declines, particularly in the landscape outside protected areas. Despite minimal conflict, subsistence farmers were less tolerant to cheetah than commercial farmers. Consequently, land reform is likely to have increased the hostility of the cheetah landscape outside protected areas. This study is one of the most comprehensive species assessments to date. It provides valuable empirical data on the implications of land use change and emphasizes how a lack of knowledge impedes our ability to recognize a species vulnerability to (local) extinction risk.

Exploring Policy Issues on the Trafficking of Women in Southern Africa with Reference to Zimbabwe

Following the socio-economic and political problems that ensued after the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in Zimbabwe, instances of human trafficking previously unseen on a large scale have sparked a newfound interest among policy makers and researchers. This article examines the flawed system provided by the Zimbabwean Trafficking in Persons Act No. 4 of 2014 for the protection of victims of human trafficking. It argues that the “Palermo Protocol”—the international instrument against all trafficking in persons is well-equipped to assume greater responsibility in ensuring the protection of victims. Although the Palermo Protocol is a universal protocol; which should be contextualised to suit various scenarios in which trafficking occurs across the globe, it may still be reasonably interpreted as providing the core principles which are vital to the protection of vulnerable populations from trafficking. Over the long haul, a new Zimbabwean Act, re-aligned with the Palermo Protocol, yet flexible, anti-trafficking partnerships between the government, Non-governmental Organisations and Civil Society remain the most viable solutions to addressing this predicament.

Quantification of landscape transformation due to the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in Zimbabwe using remotely sensed data

After independence, Zimbabwe adopted two major land reform programmes to address the racially skewed land ownership. Due to the perceived failure of these programmes, the country embarked on a highly politicised and forceful acquisition and re-distribution of white owned commercial farms under the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Whereas a large number of Zimbabweans have been allocated land under the programme, there has been a significant decline in agricultural productivity and an increase in degradation of land and associated resources. Popular opinion has even suggested the country’s current socio-economic challenges are linked to the programme. Mitigating land degradation, enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting natural resources sustainability requires an objective understanding and determination landscape transformation within relevant administrative decision making spatial extents. In this study, we adopted multi-temporal remotely sensed imagery to determine landscape transformation after the implementation of the FTLRP in Chipinge administrative district, characterised by heterogeneous land usage and natural resources. Major land-use-land-cover types were determined using the Support Vector Machine classification algorithm and accuracy established using field survey and ancillary data. Results show significant landscape transformation after the implementation of the FTLRP. Specifically, there was a decline in plantations, small farms, water bodies and forests and an increase in bare areas and settlements. This study demonstrates the value of remotely data in monitoring landscape transformation arising from a shift in policy. Furthermore, these results provide an insight into multi-temporal spatial changes in cultivated, natural and degraded lands, valuable for designing measures to improve landscape productivity and to adopt relevant rehabilitation measures. Understanding multi-temporal landscape change within an administrative boundary is particularly valuable for area specific planning, policy formulation and adoption of desired mitigation measures.

Beyond trend analysis: How a modified breakpoint analysis enhances knowledge of agricultural production after Zimbabwe's fast track land reform

In the discourse on land reform assessments, a significant lack of spatial and time-series data has been identified, especially with respect to Zimbabwe's “Fast-Track Land Reform Programme” (FTLRP). At the same time, interest persists among land use change scientists to evaluate causes of land use change and therefore to increase the explanatory power of remote sensing products. This study recognizes these demands and aims to provide input on both levels: Evaluating the potential of satellite remote sensing time-series to answer questions which evolved after intensive land redistribution efforts in Zimbabwe; and investigating how time-series analysis of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) can be enhanced to provide information on land reform induced land use change. To achieve this, two time-series methods are applied to MODIS NDVI data: Seasonal Trend Analysis (STA) and Breakpoint Analysis for Additive Season and Trend (BFAST). In our first analysis, a link of agricultural productivity trends to different land tenure regimes shows that regional clustering of trends is more dominant than a relationship between tenure and trend with a slightly negative slope for all regimes. We demonstrate that clusters of strong negative and positive productivity trends are results of changing irrigation patterns. To locate emerging and fallow irrigation schemes in semi-arid Zimbabwe, a new multi-method approach is developed which allows to map changes from bimodal seasonal phenological patterns to unimodal and vice versa. With an enhanced breakpoint analysis through the combination of STA and BFAST, we are able to provide a technique that can be applied on large scale to map status and development of highly productive cropping systems, which are key for food production, national export and local employment. We therefore conclude that the combination of existing and accessible time-series analysis methods: is able to achieve both: overcoming demonstrated limitations of MODIS based trend analysis and enhancing knowledge of Zimbabwe's FTLRP.

Beyond gender: interrogating women’s experiences in FTLRP in Zimbabwe

ABSTRACTThis article interrogates studies focusing on gender and Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in Zimbabwe, highlighting the emerging patterns and missing linkages. We utilize theories of intersectionality and agency to argue for more robust empirical research on the varied experiences of women. An analysis of intersectionality of experiences and agency is necessary to understand how women were differentially positioned and, how this is ultimately linked to how they got access to and ownership of land. The article posits that whilst gender is important, there is need for further analysis of who got what, how and where under FTLRP. To that end, the article asks: How is gender construed in relation to women’s access to FTLRP (what is included and excluded)? Whilst women appear losers as portrayed in many studies, was it only gender that determined access? What about age, nationality, class, political affiliation and traditional roots among other aspects? How did the 18% quoted in several studies get land? What about married women in this debate? Where women just victims in the FTLRP? We argue that ultimately other factors like patronage may as well explain exclusion (and inclusion) of women but this is better understood within intersectionality theoretical premises. At the same time, we also posit that women were not merely victims but used versatile tactics and strategies to get land hence invoking the notion of agency.

Understanding Zimbabwe: from liberation to authoritarianism and beyond

This book is a very welcome addition to the historiography of Zimbabwe's recent past. Sara Dorman's careful arguments, backed up by meticulous research, embrace the complexity and contradictions of modern-day Zimbabwe. She offers a nuanced discussion of the country's particular path to decolonization since independence in 1980, deftly dodging a simplistic demonization of Robert Mugabe or excessive focus on the violent ruptures and gradual socio-economic reconstitution around the Fast Track Land Reform Programme. Writing in a clear and accessible style, she underlines the importance of particularity and unique circumstance in individual African countries' paths to independence and their post-colonial trajectory. Dorman highlights the importance of state–civil society relations and sternly condemns facile accounts of ethnic politics. In her view, understanding African politics requires an appreciation of the ‘cultural and normative politics of citizenship, voice and nation-building’. ‘Nationalism’ is grounded in a ‘re-conceptualization of power relations’. This, then, explains how individual nations emerged, state institutions developed and societies negotiated a new terrain post-independence. In her framework, which emphasizes the dynamics of change and continuity, the material drivers of accumulation (‘spoil politics’) and power politics are not ignored—far from it—but Dorman stresses that any analysis of these practices needs to be set in this broader discursive, institutional and social context. Also, as Dorman underlines, elites need to be understood in the context of the social groups from which they emerged, and with which they continue to interact. This is a sophisticated framework of analysis, which acknowledges both Zimbabwean exceptionalism and the similarities of transformative change across the continent.

Lawrence Hoba’s depiction of the post-2000 Zimbabwean land invasions in The Trek and Other Stories

The article examines Lawrence Hoba’s The Trek and Other Stories (2009), which describes experiences from the post-2000 land invasions and fast-track land reform in Zimbabwe. It analyses selected short stories in relation to other Zimbabwean fictional works about land and the definition and restoration of dignified and other identities lost during Rhodesian colonialism. The article also discusses the significance of the narrative style, especially satire, and some of the themes, such as violence, dislocation, the position of women during the land reform and the multiple migration patterns in the land invasions, in an effort to foreground how all these link with Hoba’s cynicism and, at times, subversive perceptions on how the land issue has been handled in post2000 Zimbabwe. The argument here is that Hoba’s fictional writings about the post-2000 land invasions and fast track land redistribution programme are reflective of a marked departure from the pro-nationalist, ideological and backward looking fictional mappings of land and national belonging. These writings place the ‘now’ as critical in unpacking the ironies and contradictory impact of the land redistribution exercise on ordinary Zimbabweans.