Fast Photography Research Articles

Shockwave generation by a semiconductor bridge operation in water

A semiconductor bridge (SCB) is a silicon device, used in explosive systems as the electrical initiator element. In recent years, SCB plasma has been extensively studied, both electrically and using fast photography and spectroscopic imaging. However, the value of the pressure buildup at the bridge remains unknown. In this study, we operated SCB devices in water and, using shadow imaging and reference beam interferometry, obtained the velocity of the shock wave propagation and distribution of the density of water. These results, together with a self-similar hydrodynamic model, were used to calculate the pressure generated by the exploding SCB. In addition, the results obtained showed that the energy of the water flow exceeds significantly the energy deposited into the exploded SCB. The latter can be explained by the combustion of the aluminum and silicon atoms released in water, which acts as an oxidizing medium.

Noble metallic nanostructures: preparation, properties, applications

The process of formation and the characteristics are studied of noble metal nanostructures created by pulsed laser ablation in vacuum. Femtosecond (fs) and nanosecond (ns) laser systems lasing at different wavelengths are used. Several different modifications of the pulsed lased deposition (PLD) technique, as off-axis deposition and glancing angle deposition configurations are used to create nanostructures. Laser annealing of single or bimetal thin films is used to fabricate alloyed nanostructures. The possibility is demonstrated of tuning the optical properties of gold nanostructures on flexible substrates. Different experimental techniques, as fast photography, optical emission spectroscopy, FE-SEM, AFM, TEM, and Raman spectroscopy are applied to characterize the noble metallic nanostructures produced. The optical spectra of the Au and Ag nanostructures are also studied experimentally and theoretically. The theoretical simulation methods used are: molecular dynamic (MD), finite difference time domain (FDTD) and a method based on the generalized multi-particle Mie (GMM) theory. Applications of noble metal nanostructures to surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and biophotonics are briefly considered.

Extreme ultraviolet emission and confinement of tin plasmas in the presence of a magnetic field

We investigated the role of a guiding magnetic field on extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and ion emission from a laser produced Sn plasma for various laser pulse duration and intensity. For producing plasmas, planar slabs of pure Sn were irradiated with 1064 nm, Nd:YAG laser pulses with varying pulse duration (5–15 ns) and intensity. A magnetic trap was fabricated with the use of two neodymium permanent magnets which provided a magnetic field strength ∼0.5 T along the plume expansion direction. Our results indicate that the EUV conversion efficiency do not depend significantly on applied axial magnetic field. Faraday Cup ion analysis of Sn plasma show that the ion flux reduces by a factor of ∼5 with the application of an axial magnetic field. It was found that the plasma plume expand in the lateral direction with peak velocity measured to be ∼1.2 cm/μs and reduced to ∼0.75 cm/μs with the application of an axial magnetic field. The plume expansion features recorded using fast photography in the presence and absence of 0.5 T axial magnetic field are simulated using particle-in-cell code. Our simulation results qualitatively predict the plasma behavior.

Vacuum Surface Flashover of High Gradient Insulators Under Nanosecond Pulse

Vacuum surface flashover of the high gradient insulator (HGI), which consists of many alternative layers of conductors and insulators, was found to generally start from one or several dielectric layers adjacent to the anode under nanosecond pulse by using the fast photography. A simple model is proposed to explain the experimental observations. The secondary electron emission avalanche (SEEA) along the dielectric surface adjacent to the anode will be greatly enhanced due to the upstream SEEA starting from the traditional and the intermediate cathode triple junctions. The 15-mm-thick HGI samples with different numbers of dielectric layers were tested and the samples with six and eight dielectric layers showed the best performance. The experimental result proves that as the number of dielectric layers reaches a certain level, the performance of the HGI will decrease as the number of dielectric layers increases.

Direct spatiotemporal analysis of femtosecond laser-induced plasma-mediated chemical reactions

Localized, micron to millimetre-scale plasmas resulting from the fleeting interaction between ultrashort laser pulses and matter have been studied extensively in inert atmospheres. In spite of recent interest in reactive plasmas as a nanofabrication tool, ultrashort pulsed laser ablation in reactive gas atmospheres has undergone little study. In this study, we develop a methodology combining time-resolved optical emission spectroscopy and spectrally filtered time-gated fast photography to directly observe and analyse plasma-mediated chemical reactions that occur when laser ablation is performed in reactive gases. Specifically, we compare the ablation of silicon dioxide in an atmosphere of xenon difluoride gas to its ablation in nitrogen and xenon atmospheres. We show that when xenon difluoride molecules are collisionally driven into an excited state by the silicon plasma produced during laser-induced decomposition of the solid substrate, the gas undergoes dissociation. The resulting fluorine radicals react spontaneously with the silicon plasma to produce volatile fluorinated silicon compounds. In particular, mass spectroscopy shows that the primary reaction byproduct is SiF2 with small amounts of SiF and SiF4. The high spatial and temporal resolution of our methodology reveals a slowly expanding plume having an atomic silicon core with a XeF∗ shell that persists for less than 300 ns. As the silicon is fluorinated, the optical emission due to excited silicon is quenched. The absence of a silicon signal after 300 ns establishes this as the upper limit of the reaction lifetime given the conditions of the experiment.

Dipolar distribution generated by laser-induced plasma (LIP) in air in earliest instants

We present an experimental investigation of the electric field potential and magnetic field generated by a laser-induced plasma in air, for time delays 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 50 ns. The laser used is a Nd : YAG, λ = 1064 nm, 10 ns at FWHM, and the irradiance applied is I = (1011–1012) W cm−2. We find that the collective effect of the charges in the plasma form a dynamic dipole distribution aligned with the laser beam axis. This experimental result is explained based on the mobility of the electric charges detected by mapping near the plasma with a coaxial cable probe. Shadowgraphy and fast photography techniques show that the plasma ionization front advances asymmetrically and mostly toward the lens. The intrinsic dipole moment is estimated by applying an external electric field. The magnetic diagnostic shows the presence of a current aligned with the laser beam that gives rise to an azimuthal magnetic field, corroborating the observed dipolar configuration.

Comparison of nanosecond laser produced brass plasmas under low and moderate pressure air

Nanosecond laser produced brass plasmas are studied at the ambient pressures of 10−3, 20, 100 and 500 Pa. Spatial and temporal dynamics of the plasmas are captured by fast photography and optical emission spectroscopy (OES). The phenomena of plasma free expansion, splitting, sharpening, and instability are observed, respectively. At different pressures and incident laser fluences, the plasma lengths are found to be in good agreement with the drag force model, and the plasma stopping distance are interpreted with the Dyer's model. By spatially resolved OES, we confirm that the excited target ions (Zn+, and Cu+) play a growing important role on the emission near plasma front with the increase of the ambient pressure. It also demonstrates that at the late time of 300 ns, there is no significant variation in the temperature distribution on axis in the explored ambient pressure range, while the electron density decreases rapidly in the near-surface region.

Understanding plume splitting of laser ablated plasma: A view from ion distribution dynamics

Plume splitting in low-pressure ambient air was understood in view of ion distribution dynamics from the laser ablated Al plasma (1064 nm 0.57 J/mm2) by combining fast photography and spatially resolved spectroscopy. In the beginning, the spectral lines were mainly from the Al III ion. Then, the Bragg peak in stopping power of the ambient gas to Al III could be the dominant reason for the enhanced emission from the fast moving part, and the recombination of Al III to Al I-II ions near the target surface was response to the radiations from the slow moving/stationary part. As the ambient gas pressure increased, stopping distances of the Al III decreased, and radiation from the air ions became pronounced. The laser shadowgraph image at 1100 Pa indicated that the shock wave front located between the fast moving and slow moving parts. Electron densities of the fast moving plasma, which peaked at the plasma front, were on the order of 1016 cm−3, and the electron temperatures were 2–3 eV.

Kinetics of ion and prompt electron emission from laser-produced plasma

We investigated ion emission dynamics of laser-produced plasma from several elements, comprised of metals and non-metals (C, Al, Si, Cu, Mo, Ta, W), under vacuum conditions using a Faraday cup. The estimated ion flux for various targets studied showed a decreasing tendency with increasing atomic mass. For metals, the ion flux is found to be a function of sublimation energy. A comparison of temporal ion profiles of various materials showed only high-Z elements exhibited multiple structures in the ion time of flight profile indicated by the observation of higher peak kinetic energies, which were absent for low-Z element targets. The slower ions were seen regardless of the atomic number of target material propagated with a kinetic energy of 1–5 keV, while the fast ions observed in high-Z materials possessed significantly higher energies. A systematic study of plasma properties employing fast photography, time, and space resolved optical emission spectroscopy, and electron analysis showed that there existed different mechanisms for generating ions in laser ablation plumes. The origin of high kinetic energy ions is related to prompt electron emission from high-Z targets.

The Influence of spot size on the expansion dynamics of nanosecond-laser-produced copper plasmas in atmosphere

Laser produced copper plasmas of different spot sizes in air were investigated using fast photography and optical emission spectroscopy (OES). The laser energy was 33 mJ. There were dramatic changes in the plasma plume expansion into the ambient air when spot sizes changed from ∼0.1 mm to ∼0.6 mm. A stream-like structure and a hemispherical structure were, respectively, observed. It appeared that the same spot size resulted in similar expansion dynamics no matter whether the target was located in the front of or behind the focal point, although laser-induced air breakdown sometimes occurred in the latter case. Plasma plume front positions agree well with the classic blast wave model for the large spot-size cases, while an unexpected stagnation of ∼80 ns occurred after the laser pulse ends for the small spot size cases. This stagnation can be understood in terms of the evolution of enhanced plasma shielding effects near the plasma front. Axial distributions of plasma components by OES revealed a good confinement effect. Electron number densities were estimated and interpreted using the recorded Intensified Charge Coupled Device (ICCD) images.

Temporally, spatially, and spectrally resolved barrier discharge produced in trapped helium gas at atmospheric pressure

Experimental study was made on induced effects by trapped helium gas in the pulsed positive dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) operating in symmetrical electrode configuration at atmospheric pressure. Using fast photography technique and electrical measurements, the differences in the discharge regimes between the stationary and the flowing helium are investigated. It was shown experimentally that the trapped gas atmosphere (TGA) has notable impact on the barrier discharge regime compared with the influence of the flowing gas atmosphere. According to our experimental results, the DBD discharge produced in trapped helium gas can be categorized as a multi-glow (pseudo-glow) discharge, each discharge working in the sub-normal glow regime. This conclusion is made by considering the duration of current pulse (few μs), their maximum values (tens of mA), the presence of negative slope on the voltage-current characteristic, and the spatio-temporal evolution of the most representative excited species in the discharge gap. The paper focuses on the space-time distribution of the active species with a view to better understand the pseudo-glow discharge mechanism. The physical basis for these effects was suggested. A transition to filamentary discharge is suppressed in TGA mode due to the formation of supplementary source of seed electrons by surface processes (by desorption of electrons due to vibrationally excited nitrogen molecules, originated from barriers surfaces) rather than volume processes (by enhanced Penning ionisation). Finally, we show that the pseudo-glow discharge can be generated by working gas trapping only; maintaining unchanged all the electrical and constructive parameters.

Influence of sample temperature on the expansion dynamics and the optical emission of laser-induced plasma

We investigate the influence of sample temperature on the dynamics and optical emission of laser induced plasma for various solid materials. Bulk aluminum alloy, silicon wafer, and metallurgical slag samples are heated to temperature TS≤500°C and ablated in air by Nd:YAG laser pulses (wavelength 1064nm, pulse duration approx. 7ns). The plasma dynamics is investigated by fast time-resolved photography. For laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) the optical emission of plasma is measured by Echelle spectrometers in combination with intensified CCD cameras. For all sample materials the temporal evolution of plume size and broadband plasma emission vary systematically with TS. The size and brightness of expanding plumes increase at higher TS while the mean intensity remains independent of temperature. The intensity of emission lines increases with temperature for all samples. Plasma temperature and electron number density do not vary with TS. We apply the calibration-free LIBS method to determine the concentration of major oxides in slag and find good agreement to reference data up to TS=450°C. The LIBS analysis of multi-component materials at high temperature is of interest for technical applications, e.g. in industrial production processes.

Emission features of femtosecond laser ablated carbon plasma in ambient helium

We investigated the optical emission features of plasmas produced by 800 nm, 40 fs ultrafast laser pulses on a carbon target in the presence of ambient helium or nitrogen gases at varied pressures. Fast photography employing intensified charge coupled device, optical emission spectroscopy, and temporally spatially resolved optical time of flight emission spectroscopy were used as diagnostic tools. Spatio-temporal contours of excited neutral, ionic, as well as molecular carbon species in the plume were obtained using time of flight emission spectroscopy. These contours provided detailed account of molecular species evolution and expansion dynamics and indicate that three-body recombination is a major mechanism for carbon dimers generation in ultrafast laser ablation plumes in the presence of ambient gas. A systematic comparison of the emission features from ns and fs laser ablation carbon plumes as well as their expansion in ambient helium is also given. C2 vibrational temperatures were estimated during carbon plasma expansion with lower values in ambient helium compared to nitrogen and showed decreasing values with respect to space and ambient gas pressure.

Infrared nanosecond laser-metal ablation in atmosphere: Initial plasma during laser pulse and further expansion

We have investigated the dynamics of the nanosecond laser ablated plasma within and after the laser pulse irradiation using fast photography. A 1064 nm, 15 ns laser beam was focused onto a target made from various materials with an energy density in the order of J/mm2 in atmosphere. The plasma dynamics during the nanosecond laser pulse were observed, which could be divided into three stages: fast expansion, division into the primary plasma and the front plasma, and stagnation. After the laser terminated, a critical moment when the primary plasma expansion transited from the shock model to the drag model was resolved, and this phenomenon could be understood in terms of interactions between the primary and the front plasmas.

The role of laser wavelength on plasma generation and expansion of ablation plumes in air

We investigated the role of excitation laser wavelength on plasma generation and the expansion and confinement of ablation plumes at early times (0–500 ns) in the presence of atmospheric pressure. Fundamental, second, and fourth harmonic radiation from Nd:YAG laser was focused on Al target to produce plasma. Shadowgraphy, fast photography, and optical emission spectroscopy were employed to analyze the plasma plumes, and white light interferometry was used to characterize the laser ablation craters. Our results indicated that excitation wavelength plays a crucial role in laser-target and laser-plasma coupling, which in turn affects plasma plume morphology and radiation emission. Fast photography and shadowgraphy images showed that plasmas generated by 1064 nm are more cylindrical compared to plasmas generated by shorter wavelengths, indicating the role of inverse bremsstrahlung absorption at longer laser wavelength excitation. Electron density estimates using Stark broadening showed higher densities for shorter wavelength laser generated plasmas, demonstrating the significance of absorption caused by photoionization. Crater depth analysis showed that ablated mass is significantly higher for UV wavelengths compared to IR laser radiation. In this experimental study, the use of multiple diagnostic tools provided a comprehensive picture of the differing roles of laser absorption mechanisms during ablation.

Characterization of millimeter magnitude atmospheric pressure glow discharge in pin-to-plane dielectric barrier discharge

Discharge mode in pin-to-plane dielectric barrier discharge at atmospheric pressure was investigated by means of the electrical measurement, the photo-electricity and the fast macro photography. The discharge was operated in atmospheric air. Streamer and glow discharge were generated in the positive half-period and negative half-period of discharge respectively with a 10 kHz AC power supply when the applied voltage reached a high value. The subject of this paper is the study of the characterization of the glow discharge. It was found that the glow discharge have the hierarchical structure, although the discharge gap is small (only 0.9 mm). The positive column is shortened as the distance of discharge gap decreases, but the dimensions of other discharge area do not change. The discharge current waveform illustrates that the positive half-period discharge current is very short, which is streamer current waveform, and the negative half-period one is longer, which is glow discharge current waveform. The photo-electricity signal waveform corresponds with discharge current waveform. Two main glow discharge generating reasons are proposed in this paper. One is a sufficient number of space charge produced in the very uneven electric field around needle electrode; the other is the effective secondary electron emission process on the exposed needle electrode.

Characterization of millimetre magnitude atmospheric pressure streamer discharge in pin-to-plane dielectric barrier discharge

The streamer regime of pin-to-plane dielectric barrier discharge in air was studied by means of fast photography, electrical measurement and photoelectricity. The fast photographs of positive streamer were obtained by CCD camera with micro lens. The exposure time is one microseconds. The images illustrate that the streamer is non-axisymmetric because of some random factors, such as surface charge position, space charge distribution, gas liquidity and so on. In fact, the streamer propagates along bend discharge channel. The bending degree increases with the electric field strengthen. By surveying a mass of images, the diameter of streamer, height of surface charge effect and scope of surface charge was estimate used to describe the shape of streamer.

Insights in the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy signal generation underwater using dual pulse excitation — Part I: Vapor bubble, shockwaves and plasma

Plasma and vapor bubble formation and evolution after a nanosecond laser pulse delivered to aluminum targets inside water were studied by fast photography. This technique was also applied to monitor the plasma produced by a second laser pulse and for different interpulse delays. The bubble growth was evident only after 3μs from the first laser pulse and the bubble shape changed during expansion and collapse cycles. The evolution and propagation of the initial shockwave and its reflections both from the back sample surface and cell walls were detected by Schlieren photography. The primary plasma develops in two phases: violent particle expulsion and ionization during the first μs, followed by slow plasma growth from the ablation crater into the evolving vapor bubble. The shape of the secondary plasma strongly depends on the inner bubble pressure whereas the particle expulsion into the expanded bubble is much less evident. Both the primary and secondary plasma have similar duration of about 30μs. Detection efficiency of the secondary plasma is much reduced by light refraction at the curved bubble–water interface, which behaves as a negative lens; this leads to an apparent reduction of the plasma dimensions. Defocusing power of the bubble lens increases with its expansion due to the lowering of the vapor's refraction index with respect to that of the surrounding liquid (Lazic et al., 2012 [1]). Smell's reflections of secondary plasma radiation at the expanded bubble wall redistribute the detected intensity on a wavelength-dependent way and allow gathering of the emission also from the external plasma layer that otherwise, would not enter into the optical system.

Measuring drift velocity and electric field in mirror machine by fast photography

The flute instability in mirror machines is driven byspatial charge accumulation and the resulting E × B plasma drift. Onthe other hand, E × B drift due to external electrodes or coils can beused as a stabilizing feedback mechanism. Fast photography is used tovisualize Hydrogen plasma in a small mirror machine and infer the plasmadrift and the internal electric field distribution. Using incompressibleflow and monotonic decay assumptions we obtain components of the velocityfield from the temporal evolution of the plasma cross section. The electricfield perpendicular to the density gradient is then deduced from E=-V × B. With this technique we analyzed the electric field of fluteperturbations and the field induced by electrodes immersed in the plasma.

Time evolution of nanosecond runaway discharges in air and helium at atmospheric pressure

Time- and space-resolved fast framing photography was employed to study the discharge initiated by runaway electrons in air and He gas at atmospheric pressure. Whereas in the both cases, the discharge occurs in a nanosecond time scale and its front propagates with a similar velocity along the cathode-anode gap, the later stages of the discharge differ significantly. In air, the main discharge channels develop and remain in the locations with the strongest field enhancement. In He gas, the first, diode “gap bridging” stage, is similar to that obtained in air; however, the development of the discharge that follows is dictated by an explosive electron emission from micro-protrusions on the edge of the cathode. These results allow us to draw conclusions regarding the different conductivity of the plasma produced in He and air discharges.