Farms In Norway Research Articles

Housing conditions and management practices associated with neonatal lamb mortality in sheep flocks in Norway

A study was conducted in order to obtain information about sheep farms in Norway and to identify housing and management characteristics that were risk factors for neonatal mortality of lambs 0–5 days of age. A questionnaire was submitted to sheep farmers, who provided demographic data and information on sheep housing conditions and feeding and management practices. Our description of farms is based on the questionnaire responses received from 2260 farmers. Data on lamb mortality during the preceding lambing season were available for those flocks that were enrolled in the Norwegian Sheep Recording System. Some flocks where the number of lambing ewes was less than 20 or greater than 400 were excluded. The total number of flocks included in the analysis of neonatal mortality was 1125. An increase in the mean number of live-born lambs per ewe per flock was associated with increasing neonatal mortality. Factors independently associated with increased neonatal survival were continuous monitoring of the ewes during the lambing season, active support to ensure sufficient colostrum intake of the lambs, feeding a combination of grass silage and hay compared with grass silage alone, and supplying roughage at least twice per day versus only once. Increased survival was also observed in flocks where the farmer had at least 15 years of experience in sheep farming. Flocks in which the Spæl breed predominated had lower odds for neonatal deaths compared to flocks in which the Norwegian White breed predominated. In conclusion, measures in sheep flocks targeted at feeding practices during the indoor feeding period and management practice during lambing season would be expected to reduce neonatal lamb mortality.

Greenhouse gas emission intensities and economic efficiency in crop production: A systems analysis of 95 farms

To increase food production while mitigating climate change, cropping systems in the future will need to reduce greenhouse gas emission per unit of production. We conducted an analysis of 95 arable farms in Norway to calculate farm scale emissions of greenhouse gases, expressed both as CO2 eq per unit area, and CO2 eq per kg DM produced and to describe relationships between the farms’ GHG intensities and their economic efficiencies (gross margin). The study included: (1) design of a farm scale model for net GHG emission from crop production systems; (2) establishing a consistent farm scale data set for the farms with required soil, weather, and farm operation data; (3) a stochastic simulation of the variation in the sources of GHG emission intensities, and sensitivity analysis of selected parameters and equations on GHG emission intensities; and (4) describing relationships between GHG emission intensities and gross margins on farms. Among small seed and grain crops the variation in GHG emissions per kg DM was highest in oilseed (emission intensity at the 75th percentile level was 1.9 times higher than at the 25th percentile). For barley, oats, spring wheat, and winter wheat, emissions per kg DM at the 75th percentile levels were between 1.4 and 1.6 times higher than those at the 25th percentiles. Similar trends were observed for emissions per unit land area. Invariably soil N2O emission was the largest source of GHG emissions, accounting for almost half of the emissions. The second largest source was the off farm manufacturing of inputs (∼25%). Except for the oilseed crop, in which soil carbon (C) change contributed least, the on farm emissions due to fuel use contributed least to the total GHG intensities (∼10%). The soil C change contributed most to the variability in GHG emission intensities among farms in all crops, and among the sensitivity elasticities the highest one was related to environmental impacts on soil C change. The high variation in GHG intensities evident in our study implies the potential for significant mitigation of GHG emissions. The GHG emissions per kg DM (intensity) decreased with increasing gross margin in grain and oilseed crops, suggesting that crop producers have economic incentives to reduce GHG emissions.

An ecological–economic model on the effects of interactions between escaped farmed and wild salmon (Salmo salar)

AbstractThis study explores the ecological and economic impacts of interactions between escaped farmed and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, Salmonidae) over generations. An age‐ and stage‐structured bioeconomic model is developed. The biological part of the model includes age‐specific life‐history traits such as survival rates, fecundity and spawning successes for wild and escaped farmed salmon, as well as their hybrids, while the economic part takes account of use and non‐use values of fish stock. The model is simulated under three scenarios using data from the Atlantic salmon fishery and salmon farming in Norway. The social welfare is derived from harvest and wild salmon while the economic benefits of fishing comprise both sea and river fisheries. The results reveal that the wild salmon stock is gradually replaced by salmon with farmed origin, while the total social welfare and economic benefit decline, although not at the same rate as the wild salmon stock.

Fillet quality and gene transcriptome profiling of heart tissue of Atlantic salmon with pancreas disease (PD)

Pancreas disease (PD) caused by salmonid alphavirus (SAV) results in heavy economical losses for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) farms in Norway, largely due to mortality, poor performance of fish and deteriorated fillet quality. This study determined the fillet quality and heart gene transcriptome in farmed Atlantic salmon (2.2kg gutted weight) with varying PD pathology at slaughter: group A, SAV negative and PD negative; group B, SAV positive and PD negative; group C, SAV positive and PD positive. Gene expression and fillet quality characteristics of groups A and B were similar. Fish of group C had a thin body shape and pale and abnormally firm fillets with high collagen and low protein content, as well as an altered amino acid and fatty acid profile. They also had a marked reduction of energy metabolism and cell proliferation according to gene expression analyses. It is concluded that salmon infected with PD virus (SAV) may have acceptable fillet quality, but loss of pancreatic tissue may result in poor nutritional status of heart and muscle and unacceptable fillet quality. Hence such fish should not progress toward the market chain.

Patterns of vegetation change on alpine mountain summer farms in norway

Potthoff, K. and Stroth, V., 2011. Patterns of vegetation change on alpine mountain summer farms in Norway. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 93, 163–174. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468‐0459.2011.00427.xThis study investigated the impact of long‐term grazing and its abandonment on alpine vegetation. For vegetation changes after the cessation of grazing, previous studies show that the most important environmental variables are ‘nutrient content of the soil’, ‘current use’ and ‘time since abandonment’. The current study focused on the relative importance of these variables. Vegetation data and environmental variables of three mountain summer farms in Western Norway with similar ecological site conditions, but different grazing histories and present states of use, were analysed with the help of ordination methods. The results showed that mountain summer farming created a clear difference between areas at a larger distance from the farmsteads and those in the immediate surrounding of the buildings. The former are characterized by species typically occurring in habitats with low disturbance, the latter by species characteristic for grazed habitats. This confirmed results of previous studies of sub‐alpine and alpine mountain summer farms. However, considering the current differences in grazing intensity among the farms, vegetation at a greater distance from the farmsteads differed surprisingly little. Changes after abandonment of mountain summer farming occurred slowly, and the results emphasized the importance of the accumulated soil nutrients in retarding or even preventing vegetation changes.

Separating a horse from the social group for riding or training purposes: a descriptive study of human-horse interactions

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate how difficult it was to halter and separate a horse(Equus caballus)from a group for riding or training purposes and to describe how human-horse interactions could affect this common procedure. A total of 20 different horse groups, with a minimum of five horses in each, were studied on 14 farms in Norway, from June to October 2007. On each farm, information about the facilities, the horse and the handler was recorded. In each group, the horse owner or keeper (handler) was asked to enter the group, approach his/her horse, halter it and lead it out through the gate, then keep the horse standing out of sight from other horses for two minutes. The entire procedure was video recorded and the behaviour of the target horse, handler and other horses was subsequently scored. Only one of the 100 horses moved away from the handler when approached. Ninety-six percent of the target horses followed their handler without showing any resistance. In 75% of the tests, the other horses did not interact with the target horse and/or handler. At the gate, 26% of the handlers did not turn the target horse around before closing the gate, thereby placing themselves in a vulnerable position, with their body in very close proximity to the horse's hind legs. In conclusion, separating a horse from its group can be considered relatively safe and unproblematic, provided good management practices and trained handlers.

Assessment of sheep welfare using on-farm registrations and performance data

AbstractFarm animal welfare is a societal concern, and the need exists for scientific protocols to assess welfare. This paper describes the development of a protocol to assess the welfare of sheep(Ovis aries)and its application in 36 farms in Norway. There were two parts to the protocol; the animal- and resource-based measurements obtained during farm visits, and the analysis of production data. Data collection took place during visits to 36 farms in the lambing season (April-May) in 2007 (n = 11) and 2008 (n = 25). A fear test was conducted, and ewes were scored on a scale from 0 to 3. Forty-one percent of the ewes tested had a fear score of 3, indicating the lowest level of fear. Mean (± SD) fear score across farms were 1.9 (± 0.5). Higher fearfulness was found to be associated with lower ewe body condition scores (BCS). Mean (± SD) BCS across farms was 2.6 (± 0.6). A relatively large proportion of the ewes had a BCS of 2 (41%), which may be associated with an increased risk of nutritional stress, disease and low productivity. Eight farms had more than 5% (range 5.4-24.4%) of lamb carcases categorised in the lowest conformation class, which may be an indication of a welfare problem. This study is the first step in the development and validation of a welfare assessment protocol for sheep, and further research is needed to assess the overall reliability of the protocol.

Experiences from 40 years of muskox (Ovibos moschatus) farming in Norway

Experiences from the management of a semi-domesticated herd of muskoxen, mostly on an island outside Tromsø (~70º N; 19º E), over a period of 40 years have been collected, and data on husbandry practices, reproduction, diseases and longevity are presented and discussed.

Diseases of farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar associated with infections by the microsporidian Paranucleospora theridion

The microsporidian Paranucleospora theridion was discovered in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar suffering from proliferative gill disease in a marine farm in western Norway in 2008. The parasite develops in cells of the reticuloendothelial system, cells important for normal immune function. The aim of this study was to see if P. theridion could play a part in some of the diseases with unclear causes in salmon production in Norway, i.e. proliferative gill disease (PGI), pancreas disease (PD), heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI) and cardiomyopathy syndrome (CMS). P. theridion was present in all areas with salmon farming in Norway, but high prevalence and densities of the parasite in salmon and salmon lice were only seen in southern Norway. This region is also the main area for PGI and PD in Norway. Quantification of pathogens associated with PGI, PD, HSMI and CMS diagnoses showed that P. theridion levels are high in southern Norway, and may therefore play a role in susceptibility and disease development. However, among the different diagnoses, fish with PGI are particularly heavily infected with P. theridion. Therefore, P. theridion appears as a possible primary agent in cases with high mortality in connection with PGI in western Norway.

Genetic differentiation among Atlantic salmon reared in sea-cages reveals a non-random distribution of genetic material from a breeding programme to commercial production

Seven samples, each consisting of approximately 50 Atlantic salmon, were collected from five marine farms in Norway. These farms reported to rear fish originating from the same commercial breed; however, all samples followed a unique route of production from breeder to marine farm via egg, fry and smolt producers. A group of farmed escapees (n=50) were also captured. Following genotyping with 18 microsatellite loci, the global FST was 0.083, and pair-wise values were as high as 0.158. Four clusters, with varying degrees of genetic differentiation, were identified among samples from the farms, and the source of the escapees was identified successfully. It is suggested that the genetic differences observed among samples from the farms were created through the process of genetic drift, facilitated by parallel sub-strains, extensive within-strain selection and low to moderate numbers of adults contributing to batches of eggs. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that genetic identification of escaped Atlantic salmon, back to the farm of origin, may be possible even when farms rear fish reported to originate from a single breeder.

Heart and skeletal muscle inflammation of farmed salmon is associated with infection with a novel reovirus.

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) mariculture has been associated with epidemics of infectious diseases that threaten not only local production, but also wild fish coming into close proximity to marine pens and fish escaping from them. Heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI) is a frequently fatal disease of farmed Atlantic salmon. First recognized in one farm in Norway in 1999[1], HSMI was subsequently implicated in outbreaks in other farms in Norway and the United Kingdom[2]. Although pathology and disease transmission studies indicated an infectious basis, efforts to identify an agent were unsuccessful. Here we provide evidence that HSMI is associated with infection with piscine reovirus (PRV). PRV is a novel reovirus identified by unbiased high throughput DNA sequencing and a bioinformatics program focused on nucleotide frequency as well as sequence alignment and motif analyses. Formal implication of PRV in HSMI will require isolation in cell culture and fulfillment of Koch's postulates, or prevention or modification of disease through use of specific drugs or vaccines. Nonetheless, as our data indicate that a causal relationship is plausible, measures must be taken to control PRV not only because it threatens domestic salmon production but also due to the potential for transmission to wild salmon populations.

Dispersal of large farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, from simulated escapes at fish farms in Norway and Scotland

Abstract Individually tagged farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., were released from fish farms in simulated escapes in Scotland (n = 678) and Norway (n = 597) to compare migratory behaviour and dispersal. Large fish (510–870 mm fork length) were released to simulate the escape of aquaculture growers. Fish were released in spring and all recaptures of tagged fish were reported during summer and autumn of the year of release. Recapture rates were respectively 7.0 and 0.6% of the salmon released in Norway and Scotland, indicating a higher mortality or a lower exploitation or reporting rate for Scottish fish. Recaptures of Norwegian fish were all from Norway and mostly within 150 km of the release site; 64% were taken by anglers in fresh water. By contrast, the three salmon recaptured from the release in Scotland were reported from Norway (Hardangerfjord and Lofoten) and western Sweden (River Göta); two detached tags were found on beaches in Scotland north of the release site. These findings establish the capacity for long distance dispersal among escapees from aquaculture facilities and suggest a net easterly bias in long distance dispersal of salmon escaping from Scottish fish farms.

Visiting a Farm: An Exploratory Study of the Social Construction of Animal Farming in Norway and the Netherlands based on Sensory Perception

Most citizens in modern societies have little personal knowledge or experience of animal farming. This study explores the social construction of animal farming by studying how citizens perceive and evaluate modern farming after visiting a farm in real life. We wanted to understand how (non-farming) citizens develop an opinion of modern dairy farming when experiencing dairy farming in real life and practice, and how they translate what they see, smell and feel into an evaluative perception and mental image. We therefore conducted dairy farm visits with citizen panels in Norway and the Netherlands and asked the panel members to register what they saw, heard, smelled and felt and what they appreciated (or not) on the farm. The aspects that respondents registered could be grouped into four themes: the animals and their products, the rural landscape, farm practices and the farmer. When respondents described their experiences of these aspects on a specific farm, they appeared to look at them from three angles: modernity, tradition and naturality. Most respondents wanted farms to be modern, traditional as well as natural, but they were ready to negotiate and to accept compromises. Many respondents considered the farmer to be responsible for reconciling modernity, tradition and naturality. By taking different topics and issues into account and looking at animal farms from multiple angles, the respondents’ developed a balanced and nuanced opinion of animal farming. The image that they constructed was not dualistic (arcadia versus factory) but pluralistic, thus at the same time more complex but also more flexible than expected. We expect that the development of a pluralistic image and balanced opinion was facilitated through the direct experience of dairy farming and farm life. The article starts with a theoretical analysis and aims to contribute to recent debates in rural sociology in two ways: 1) it studies how material experience and mental perception interact in the construction of an evaluative image of animal farming; and 2) it explores the social construction of animal farming as embedded into to the construction of nature, rurality and human-animal relationships. It concludes by discussing the contribution of the findings to the ongoing theoretical debate in this field.

"The Future can only be Imagined" - Innovation in Farm Tourism from a Phenomenological Perspective

This article relates to the fast growing research literature on innovation by adopting a phenomenological perspective of change and how change comes about. We visited nineteen farms in Norway in a project on farm-based tourism. Results show highly differentiated products but similar routes in transforming a farm no longer seen as economically viable, into a way of doing life and doing work that brings a complex of considerations together. The concept of imaginative horizons is used and seen as characteristic of the transformative process of turning the farm into a farm based tourist enterprise. The same transformation becomes a way of keeping the relationship and interdependence between the past and the present vivid and meaningful.

Species-specific patterns of aggregation of wild fish around fish farms

Fish-farming structures are widespread in coastal waters and are highly attractive to wild fish. Several studies have estimated that tons to tens of tons of wild fish aggregate around fish farms. These estimates assumed that the majority of wild fish are concentrated immediately beneath farms, although this assumption has never been explicitly tested. We tested the hypothesis that abundances of wild fish would be greatest immediately beneath farms and progressively diminish with distance at 4 full-scale coastal salmon ( Salmo salar) farms in Norway. At each farm, fish were counted with a video-camera system at 5 different distances from the cages (farm = 0 m, 25, 50, 100 and 200 m) throughout the water column on three separate days. Combined across all locations and times, the total abundance of wild fish was 20 times greater at the farm than at the 200 m sampling distance. Saithe ( Pollachius virens) dominated assemblages at all 4 farms and were consistently significantly more abundant at the farm than at the 25–200 m distances. This ‘tight aggregation’ around farms corresponds to the reliance of saithe on waste feed when they school near farms. In contrast, patterns of distribution of both cod ( Gadus morhua) and poor cod ( Trisopterus minutus) varied among farms, with either highest abundances at the farm or a more even distribution of abundance across all 5 distances sampled. No specific pattern of aggregation was evident for the bottom-dwelling haddock ( Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Our results suggest that the present 100 m no-fishing zone around salmon farms protects the greatest proportion of farm-aggregated saithe and cod from fishing during the daytime. However, whether this reduces their overall susceptibility to fishing requires further research regarding nighttime distribution and movements.

The effect of shape, width and slope of a resting platform on the resting behaviour of and floor cleanliness for housed sheep

The aim of this experiment was to investigate how the shape (U-shaped, L-shaped or platform, both in the front and back (FB-shaped) of the pen), width (0.5 m or 0.6 m) and slope (0% or 5%) of a solid wooden resting platform, together with the cleaning frequency (daily or every 2nd day) would affect the resting behaviour of ewes and floor cleanliness. The experiment was conducted in three different commercial farms in Norway, and within each herd, two of the factors were tested in a 2 × 2 factorial design using four experimental pens, while the effect of cleaning frequency (daily or every other day) was replicated within the herd using four additional experimental pens (eight experimental pens within each herd). Ewes were systematically rotated between pens within herds and the ewes’ resting behaviour was scored for the last 6 days of each experimental period. The manure on the solid resting platforms was collected and weighed, while moisture on the surface of the resting platforms was scored for the 2 last days of each experimental period. In all herds, significantly more sheep were observed resting in pens with FB-shaped resting platforms than in pens with U- or L-shaped platforms ( P < 0.0001). A reduced amount of time on resting platforms was mainly compensated for an increase in the number of sheep lying on the slatted floor and partly by an increase in the number of sheep that was standing. An effective perimeter length (EPL) with a minimum of 0.9 m per ewe was needed to enable all sheep to rest simultaneously on the resting platform. Increasing the slope of the resting platform had no effect on resting behaviour, but decreasing the width of the platforms resulted in more ewes resting on the original pen floor ( P < 0.01). A slope of 5% resulted in a significantly lower amount of manure ( P < 0.0001) and a lower moisture score ( P < 0.0001). In two of the herds, cleaning every 2nd day increased the amount of manure ( P < 0.01), but not the moisture score. In conclusion, FB-shaped resting platforms of solid wood may be a relatively cheap and convenient way of increasing the resting time and comfort of sheep housed in fully slatted floor pens, as long as there is a sufficient amount of effective perimeter length available.

A stochastic model for the assessment of the transmission pathways of heart and skeleton muscle inflammation, pancreas disease and infectious salmon anaemia in marine fish farms in Norway

Salmon farming is threatened, economically and ecologically, by infectious diseases. To reduce the risk of epidemics, authorities have developed regulations. These are based on quantitative understanding of pathways of infection, representing disease specific risks. A stochastic model was fitted to historical data, to estimate risk factors associated with competing spread mechanisms. Three infectious diseases were compared, heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI), pancreas disease (PD) and infectious salmon anaemia (ISA). This study was based on space–time data, from Norway from 2003 to 2007, describing the susceptible fish cohorts and the reported infections. Particular interest was given to seaway distances between farms and their local management organisation. The parameter measuring the effect of distance to an infectious fish farm was positive and significant for all diseases, implying that the risk involved with proximate infectious fish farms increased with decreasing distance. For HSMI and PD there was a significant effect of sharing a contact network with an infectious farm. For HSMI, but not for PD or ISA, there was a significant effect of previous infected cohorts on the same farm. The relative contribution of each transmission pathway was dominated by seaway distance for PD and HSMI, while other non-defined pathways dominated for ISA. This comparative study highlights that the three diseases have different patterns of spread, with important consequences for disease prevention and management.

Grouping horses according to gender—Effects on aggression, spacing and injuries

Many horse owners tend to group horses according to gender, in an attempt to reduce aggressive interactions and the risk of injuries. The aim of our experiment was to test the effects of such gender separation on injuries, social interactions and individual distance in domestic horses. A total of 66 horses were recruited from 4 different farms in Norway and Denmark and divided into six batches. Within each batch, horses were allotted into one mare group, one gelding group and one mixed gender group, with most groups consisting of three or four animals. After 4–6 weeks of acclimatisation, a trained observer recorded all social interactions using direct, continuous observation 1 h in the morning and 1 h in the afternoon for three consecutive days. Recordings of the nearest neighbour of each horse were performed using instantaneous sampling every 10 min. The horses were inspected for injuries before grouping, day 1 after grouping and after 4–6 weeks. No significant effect of gender composition was found on social interactions ( P > 0.05), spacing ( P > 0.07) or injuries ( P > 0.23). Eighty percent of all aggressive interactions recorded were threats, not involving physical contact. Horses with the smallest space allowance showed the highest mean number of aggressive interactions (28.6 ± 6.1 interactions per 6 h) compared to the mean of all the other batches (8.3 ± 1.0 interactions per 6 h). Very few injuries were found and most were superficial. In conclusion, gender composition does not seem to have any effect on aggression level, spacing or injuries. However, the early social experience of horses, management of feeding and space allowance probably represents more important factors for successful group housing of domestic horses.

Organic dairy farming in Norway under the 100% organically produced feed requirement

The derogation to use a percentage of cheaper non-organic feeds in organic livestock diets for herbivores expired from January 2008. (In Norway, a maximum of 15% conventional feedstuffs per year was allowed until 24 August 2005, 5% in the interim.) This study aimed to assess changes in resource use and financial impacts for organic dairy herds of the 100% organic feeding rule (compared with 85% organic feeds) using a two-stage stochastic programming modelling framework. In this study, the objective function was to maximise expected net income. Two organic dairy farms in the lowlands of southern Norway, both having a milk quota of 100,000 l but with varying farmland availability (37 ha vs. 20 ha), were examined. Furthermore, situations with and without possibilities to buy organic silage were studied. Milk production per cow was highest on the farm with the most strict land constraint. For farmers that fully utilise the non-organic feed allowance, the more expensive organic feeds determine the marginal feed cost. Hence, a removal of the non-organic feed allowance will not influence optimal farm practice (provided that marginal milk production is still profitable). A switch from conventional to organic concentrates as the only adjustment was found on the 37 ha farm and also on the 20 ha farm if there was no possibility to buy some organic silage. On the 20 ha farm with possibilities to buy organic silage, it turned out to be unprofitable to keep all the cows. Fewer cows resulted in several other changes in the model solution such as a lower milk yield per cow, less milk produced in total and more work off-farm. The financial gain from carrying out the optimal management changes was, however, very small. In all cases studied, the introduction of 100% organic feeds resulted in an economic loss of NOK 19,200–23,600 (or 7–12% of the expected net income with 85% organic feeds). The economic losses were due to the price premium of organic concentrates.

Synergies, scope economies and scale diseconomies on farms in Norway

Abstract We test for the presence of synergies and associated economic gains on farms in Norway from exploiting a diverse set of income-earning possibilities. The synergies and economic gains from product diversification are examined between livestock output, crop output, off-farm income, coupled subsidies and environmental payments. Synergies are measured by the second cross partial derivatives of outputs, and economic gains from diversification are measured by scope economies, with the former a necessary but insufficient condition for the latter. While synergies are evident, they do not result in economic gains from diversification of on-farm and off-farm activities. Evidence is also presented of significant diseconomies of small scale in farming operations. In contrast to results obtained for farms in the US Corn Belt, however, they are not assuaged when off-farm work is taken into account.