Farms In Norway Research Articles

Embodied and operational energy in buildings on 20 Norwegian dairy farms – Introducing the building construction approach to agriculture

Embodied energy in barns is found to contribute to about 10–30% of total energy use on dairy farms. Nevertheless, research on sustainability of dairy farming has largely excluded consideration of embodied energy. The main objectives of this study were to apply an established model from the residential and commercial building sector and estimate the amount of embodied energy in the building envelopes on 20 dairy farms in Norway. Construction techniques varied across the buildings and our results showed that the variables which contributed most significantly to levels of embodied energy were the area per cow-place, use of concrete in walls and insulation in concrete walls. Our findings are in contrast to the assumption that buildings are similar and would show no significant differences. We conclude that the methodology is sufficiently flexible to accommodate different building design and use of materials, and allows for an efficient means of estimating embodied energy reducing the work compared to a mass material calculation. Choosing a design that requires less material or materials with a low amount of embodied energy, can significantly reduce the amount of embodied energy in buildings.

Contested knowledges, contested responsibilities: The EU Water Framework Directive and salmon farming in Norway

Movik, S. & Stokke, K.B. 2015. Contested knowledges, contested responsibilities: The EU Water Framework Directive and salmon farming in Norway. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 00, 00–00. ISSN 0029-1951Norway has signed the European Union's Water Framework Directive (WFD), according to which all water bodies are expected to have ‘good ecological status’ by 2021. An ongoing debate about the environmental impacts of aquaculture is related particularly to the impact on wild salmon of the spread of salmon lice and escaped farmed fish. The authors examine the key arguments concerning the environmental impact of salmon farming, and how knowledge is produced and marshalled in the dispute. How does the framing of knowledge and authority affect the apportioning of responsibility for taking appropriate measures to mitigate negative effects? The questions are addressed by drawing on insights from critical political ecology and work on governance scales, and by analysing relevant documents and ‘grey’ literature in combination with in-depth, semi-structured interviews with key actors. The authors find that there are biases within the research environments that tend to reinforce existing divisions between the environmental authorities and fisheries authorities. Disagreements about the appropriate scientific approaches to assessing sustainability are a barrier to co-operation and planning, and the consensus needed to implement appropriate measures will depend on clarification at the national level.

Path dependency, institutionalization and co-evolution: The missing diffusion of the blue revolution in Norwegian aquaculture

Scholars taking the evolutionary perspective argue that technologies, competence and institutions of successful paths may spill over to related industry initiatives and subsequent industry paths. The notion of co-evolution has been introduced as an analytical category for such interconnectivity. In this article, we investigate the development of salmon farming in Norway as a successful industry path and its linkages with cod farming, a subsequent emerging industry path. In the public debate, there has been an expectation that knowledge and solutions from salmon farming will diffuse to aquaculture for other species. However, this diffusion appears to be missing. Cod farming is an area that should capitalize on the success of salmon aquaculture, and we investigate why cod farmers appear to be unable to utilize the experience and knowledge of salmon farmers and copy their solutions. We found that the development of a specialized institutional arrangement for salmon farming makes these models incompatible with the needs of farming of other species, resulting in limited co-evolution between subsequent aquaculture industry paths. Thus, a situation characterized by strong co-evolution within an industry path, facilitating the development of an institutional arrangement tailor-made for the firms of the industry, reduce the possibilities for co-evolution between related industry paths.

Effects of aquaculture fallowing on the recovery of macrofauna communities

The fallowing period is a management measure in aquaculture where the production is paused for a few months to reduce the impact on the benthic environment. We studied the effects of different fallowing periods on the recovery of macrofauna at two salmon farms in Norway. The macrofauna at the farm stations were characterised by high abundances of opportunistic taxa (e.g. Capitella spp.), low diversity and significantly different community structure compared to reference sites. The fallowing initiated macrofauna recovery at both farm stations, indicated by a decline of dominant opportunistic taxa after 2months. Significant changes in taxa composition occurred only after 6months, although indications of disturbance were still evident. Surprisingly, no corresponding spatial or temporal differences were found in the sediment parameters such as redox, TOC and pH. The results suggest that macrofauna is a more sensitive indicator and that the seasonal timing of fallowing may affect recovery dynamics.

Widespread anthelmintic resistance in European farmed ruminants: a systematic review

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Assessing the Influence of Salmon Farming through Total Lipids, Fatty Acids, and Trace Elements in the Liver and Muscle of Wild Saithe Pollachius virens

AbstractSaithe Pollachius virens are attracted to uneaten salmon feed underneath cages at open‐cage salmon farms in Norway. The aggregated Saithe have modified their feeding habits as they have switched from wild prey to uneaten food pellets, which could lead to physiological and biochemical changes in the Saithe. Variations in profiles of total lipids, fatty acids, and trace elements in Saithe liver and muscle were measured to evaluate the influence of fish feed from salmon farms on wild Saithe populations. Farm‐aggregated Saithe had higher fat content in liver tissues than did individuals captured more than 25 km away from farms, but no clear differences were found in muscle tissues. High proportions of fatty acids of terrestrial origin, such as oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, in liver and muscle tissues of farm‐aggregated Saithe reflected the presence of wild Saithe at farms. Accordingly, low proportions of arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids in Saithe tissues mirrored the feeding activity at farms. Variations in specific trace element signatures among fish groups also revealed the farming influence on wild Saithe. High levels of Fe, As, Se, Zn, and B in liver, but also As, B, Li, Hg, and Sr in muscle of Saithe captured away from farms indicated the absence of feeding at farms.Received March 26, 2014; accepted December 10, 2014

Bacterial communities associated with surfaces of leafy greens: shift in composition and decrease in richness over time.

The phyllosphere is colonized by a wide variety of bacteria and fungi; it harbors epiphytes, as well as plant-pathogenic bacteria and even human pathogens. However, little is known about how the bacterial community composition on leafy greens develops over time. The bacterial community of the leafy-green phyllosphere obtained from two plantings of rocket salad (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) and three plantings of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) at two farms in Norway were profiled by an Illumina MiSeq-based approach. We found that the bacterial richness of the L. sativa samples was significantly greater shortly (3 weeks) after planting than at harvest (5 to 7 weeks after planting) for plantings 1 and 3 at both farms. For the second planting, the bacterial diversity remained consistent at the two sites. This suggests that the effect on bacterial colonization of leaves, at least in part must, be seasonally driven rather than driven solely by leaf maturity. The distribution of phyllosphere communities varied between D. tenuifolia and L. sativa at harvest. The variability between these species at the same location suggests that the leaf-dwelling bacteria are not only passive inhabitants but interact with the host, which shapes niches favoring the growth of particular taxa. This work contributes to our understanding of host plant-specific microbial community structures and shows how these communities change throughout plant development.

Impacts of wild fishes attracted to open-cage salmonid farms in Norway

Salmonid farming affects both the environment and other industries, with impacts of wild fish attracted to fish farms being a major concern. Here, we summarized existing knowledge on the impacts of such aggregations around open-cage salmonid farms in Norway on the environ- ment and human activities and on the interactions of these impacts. Waste fish feed is considered the major cause for the attraction of wild fish to the cages. The aggregations of wild fish are rela- tively persistent and can affect the spatiotemporal distribution of several wild marine species. A change in diet by ingesting the high-energy waste feed available close to the cages may increase the energy stores of some of the attracted fish species, and perhaps also their fecundity, but whether this influences offspring viability is unknown. Changes in the distribution and physiology of the attracted fish can influence local fisheries in terms of resource availability and are probably also associated with the softer, lower-quality meat texture of wild fish caught close to salmonid farms. For fish farmers, the attraction of wild fish to the cages is advantageous because attracted fish eat a substantial amount of the waste feed before it can impact the benthos, and because large attracted fish prey on escaped farmed fish. However, movements of wild fish may play a role in the transfer of diseases, and wild fish may cause farmed fish to escape by damaging the net pens. Due to the complexity of interactions, a combined focus on the impacts of attracted wild fishes on the environment and human activities is warranted when developing future management and gover- nance strategies for salmonid aquaculture.

Potential disease interaction reinforced: double‐virus‐infected escaped farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., recaptured in a nearby river

The role of escaped farmed salmon in spreading infectious agents from aquaculture to wild salmonid populations is largely unknown. This is a case study of potential disease interaction between escaped farmed and wild fish populations. In summer 2012, significant numbers of farmed Atlantic salmon were captured in the Hardangerfjord and in a local river. Genetic analyses of 59 of the escaped salmon and samples collected from six local salmon farms pointed out the most likely source farm, but two other farms had an overlapping genetic profile. The escapees were also analysed for three viruses that are prevalent in fish farming in Norway. Almost all the escaped salmon were infected with salmon alphavirus (SAV) and piscine reovirus (PRV). To use the infection profile to assist genetic methods in identifying the likely farm of origin, samples from the farms were also tested for these viruses. However, in the current case, all the three farms had an infection profile that was similar to that of the escapees. We have shown that double-virus-infected escaped salmon ascend a river close to the likely source farms, reinforcing the potential for spread of viruses to wild salmonids.

Effects of functional feeds on the lipid composition, transcriptomic responses and pathology in heart of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) before and after experimental challenge with Piscine Myocarditis Virus (PMCV).

BackgroundCardiomyopathy syndrome (CMS) is a severe cardiac disease of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) recently associated with a double-stranded RNA virus, Piscine Myocarditis Virus (PMCV). The disease has been diagnosed in 75-85 farms in Norway each year over the last decade resulting in annual economic losses estimated at up to €9 million. Recently, we demonstrated that functional feeds led to a milder inflammatory response and reduced severity of heart lesions in salmon experimentally infected with Atlantic salmon reovirus, the causal agent of heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI). In the present study we employed a similar strategy to investigate the effects of functional feeds, with reduced lipid content and increased eicosapentaenoic acid levels, in controlling CMS in salmon after experimental infection with PMCV.ResultsHepatic steatosis associated with CMS was significantly reduced over the time course of the infection in fish fed the functional feeds. Significant differences in immune and inflammatory responses and pathology in heart tissue were found in fish fed the different dietary treatments over the course of the infection. Specifically, fish fed the functional feeds showed a milder and delayed inflammatory response and, consequently, less severity of heart lesions at earlier and later stages after infection with PMCV. Decreasing levels of phosphatidylinositol in cell membranes combined with the increased expression of genes related with T-cell signalling pathways revealed new interactions between dietary lipid composition and the immune response in fish during viral infection. Dietary histidine supplementation did not significantly affect immune responses or levels of heart lesions.ConclusionsCombined with the previous findings on HSMI, the results of the present study highlight the potential role of clinical nutrition in controlling inflammatory diseases in Atlantic salmon. In particular, dietary lipid content and fatty acid composition may have important immune-modulatory effects in Atlantic salmon that could be potentially beneficial in fish balancing the immune and tissue responses to viral infections.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-462) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Negative externalities of food production: discourses on the contested Norwegian aquaculture industry

The concern of this article is the language and ontology of negative externalities. Four discourses on the financially successful industry of salmon farming in Norway are critically analyzed and deconstructed. The discourses are: "high turnover discourse", "technology optimism discourse", "first nature discourse" and "traditionalist discourse". Groups defending various discourses differ in their interpretations of a) human/nature relations i.e. either ecocentric, anthropocentric or biocentric, and b) in their respective approach to either a transformative, adaptive or reactive logic. By linking interpretations, concepts and logic inherent to these discourses, it is possible to make conclusions on their degree of coherency. The leading discourses are maintained in language through strategic framing and overdetermination. These linguistic mechanisms are revealed in the discursive application of the concepts of sustainability and wild fish. Rather than to surrender to relativism, the article recommends integration of realism and deconstruction.Key words: Atlantic salmon farming, food production, critical discourse analysis, negative externalities, soft constructionism, parsimony, political ecology, sustainability.

Status of arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) farming in Norway, Sweden and Iceland

This article describes the status of the Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus L.) aquaculture industry in Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The purpose of the work was to give an update on the status of Arctic charr farming in these countries based on information obtained from the industry itself. The data were collected using questionnaires designed for the purpose with key personnel in each country interviewing the farmers or farm managers. The questions were divided on topics focusing on different sides of the production, including farm characteristics, biological challenges and markets. The aim was to identify strengths and weaknesses in the production related to country and production technologies. The information may prove useful for decisions and prioritising future research and development work on removing bottlenecks and improving sustainable production of Arctic charr.

An improved multiple-locus variable-number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) for the fish pathogen Francisella noatunensis using capillary electrophoresis

BackgroundFrancisellosis, caused by the bacterium Francisella noatunensis subsp. noatunensis, remains a serious threat to Atlantic cod (Gadhus morhua) farming in Norway and potentially in other countries. As outbreak strains appear clonal in population structure, access to highly discriminatory typing tools is critical for understanding the epidemiology of francisellosis infections in aquaculture. In this study, a simplified multiple-locus variable-number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) targeting five highly polymorphic variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) loci in a single multiplex PCR was developed to rapidly discriminate between outbreak strains.ResultsThe assay resulted in identification of at least 13 different allelic profiles or subpopulations among 91 F. noatunensis isolates from farmed cod in Norway. The VNTR loci appear relatively stable, with isolates originating from individual outbreaks showing identical MLVA profiles following repeated passage. MLVA displayed greater discriminatory power than pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Both MLVA and PFGE show good epidemiological concordance by their abilities to separate outbreak strains from epidemiologically unrelated isolates.ConclusionsThe MLVA method presented here is robust, easy to perform and provides a good alternative to other typing systems for F. noatunensis subsp. noatunensis and epidemiological study of francisellosis in cod.

Development and testing of an on-farm welfare assessment protocol for dairy goats

AbstractTo ensure that farm animal welfare issues are identified and addressed appropriately, there is a need for robust on-farm welfare assessment protocols. This paper describes the development of a comprehensive welfare assessment protocol for dairy goats(Capra hircus)and its testing on 30 commercial dairy goat farms in Norway. The protocol combines animal-based welfare indicators with measures of husbandry provisions to enable the identification of welfare problems and challenges inherent to the production system. The study also includes a first report of group level qualitative behavioural assessments (QBA) of goats. Due to reliability and validity issues related to behavioural assessments of human-animal interactions, indices of stockperson attitudes were incorporated as a complementary assessment of stockmanship. The most prevalent physical conditions observed were ocular discharge, skin lesions, udder asymmetry, calluses on knees and hocks, and overgrown claws. Moreover, fear levels appeared to be of particular concern in some herds. Significant associations were found between qualitative behavioural assessments and measures of health and stockmanship. Floor type was associated with four animal-based welfare outcomes. Reliability and validity of goat welfare indicators need to be further tested, and intervention plans and thresholds need to be determined so that advice can be tailored to the specific problems identified on each farm. We conclude that the protocol can work as a tool to identify welfare issues in dairy goat herds, and that this study may be a valuable contribution to the development of a much-needed welfare assessment protocol for dairy goats.

Greenhouse gas emission intensities of grass silage based dairy and beef production: A systems analysis of Norwegian farms

To increase food production while minimizing its influence on climate change, farming systems in future will need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per unit of product (i.e., GHG intensity). To assess the level and variation in GHG emissions intensity among Norwegian dairy farms, we conducted an analysis of 30 dairy farms to calculate farm scale emissions of GHGs, expressed as CO2 equivalents (CO2eq) per kg fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM), and CO2eq/kg carcass weight (CW) sold. A model, HolosNor, was developed to estimate net GHG emissions, including soil C changes, from dairy farms. The model requires farm scale input data of soil physical characteristics, weather, and farm operations. Based on data from 2008 the estimated level of GHG intensity was 1.02kgCO2eqkg−1 FPCM, 21.67kgCO2eqkg−1 CW sold as culled cows and heifers, and 17.25kgCO2eqkg−1 CW sold as young bulls. On average, enteric CH4 was the largest emission source both per unit FPCM and CW, accounting for 0.39kgCO2eqkg−1 FPCM, 8.34kgCO2eqkg−1 CW sold as culled cows and heifers, and 6.84kgCO2eqkg−1 CW sold as young bulls. Variation in the estimated soil N2O emissions was the source that contributed the most to the total variation among the farms; the difference between the minimum and the maximum levels was estimated to be 0.30kgCO2eqkg−1 FPCM, and 6.43 and 6.49kgCO2eqkg−1 CW sold as culled cows/heifers and young bulls, respectively. Other GHG emission sources also varied considerably among the farms; similar to the N2O emissions, higher emissions of enteric CH4, indirect energy use due to manufacturing of farm inputs, and soil C change all contributed to the higher GHG intensity of some farms. Our study estimates large variation in GHG intensity among dairy farms in Norway and indicates a sensitivity of the emissions to mitigation measures. Production of milk and beef is a complex biological system, thus mitigation options are likely to be most successful when applied in small steps. Thus, the most valuable contribution of the current work is the framework of an on-farm tool for assessing farm-specific mitigation options of Norwegian dairy and beef production.

Mortality related to pancreas disease in Norwegian farmed salmonid fish, Salmo salar L. and Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

High mortality during the salmonid seawater phase is a continuous problem for the salmonid aquaculture industry, although the mortality levels show a large variation both in farms with a disease history and those without. We wanted to examine the mortality patterns in farms with pancreas disease (PD) and compare it to farms without this diagnosis. Further, we wished to investigate the factors influencing the maximum mortality in both groups. We examined data from all salmonid farms in Norway stocked after January 2003 and slaughtered before December 2007. In total, 1884 cohorts were included, and 150 of these were diagnosed with PD. We found that season accounted for more of the variation in mortality than water temperature in PD-positive cohorts and that infection pressure influenced the mortality in non-PD cohorts, suggesting outbreaks of disease that are not diagnosed. We also found that the mortality in PD cohorts decreased significantly from 2003 to 2007, suggesting that increased knowledge about PD and targeted actions have been effective. Our study further suggests that crude mortality figures may be of limited use when wanting to examine a particular disease and risk factors for increased mortality. We suggest farmers and legislation should turn to a more modern approach with cause-specific mortality records.

Development of organic farming in Norway: A statistical analysis of neighbourhood effects

The organic boom in agriculture at the turn of the new millennium culminated in ambitious political goals for further growth in organic agricultural production and consumption. In Norway, the present goal is to reach a level of 15% organic production and consumption by 2020. So far, the requested shift toward organic farming has not occurred at the anticipated level. Organic farming began in Norway with a few pioneers who questioned the conditions in conventional agriculture. Since the late 1980s, there has been a rise in the number of organic farms from the core 20 or so original farms to approximately 2800 certified organic farms in 2010. While several studies have explored the diffusion of organic farming as an innovation, little research has been carried out to specifically understand the spatial diffusion of organic agriculture. This paper explores spatial diffusion of organic farming in Norway by asking if the level of organic farming in one municipality is influenced by organic farming in its neighbouring municipalities. Spatial analyses are carried out on population, agricultural production and producer data. The dependent variable is the proportion of organic production in Norwegian municipalities (N=430). Analyses in the paper show a connection between the level of organic production, the population level in the municipalities, and access to consumers. This research also shows a connection between the farm processing of organic products and the level of organic farming. The patterns are of a geographical nature, showing neighbourhood effects in the development of organic farming that are especially strong in particular regions of Norway. The results are discussed in light of previous research on organic farming and Hägerstrands ([1953] 1967) theory of spatial diffusion of innovations.

Estimating farm-scale greenhouse gas emission intensity of pig production in Norway

To assess greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity and its variation in Norwegian pig production, we conducted an analysis of 15 farrow-to-finish pig farms to calculate farm-scale emissions of GHGs, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq) per kg carcass weight (CW) sold. A model, HolosNor, was developed to estimate net GHG emissions, including soil C changes, from pig farms. Based on data from 2008 the estimated GHG intensity was 2.65 kg CO2eq kg−1 CW (range: 1.24–4.03). The production of the feed consumed by the pigs contributed most to total GHG emissions; accounting for 2.14 kg CO2eq kg−1 CW, or more than 80% of the total emissions. Our study estimated a large variation in GHG intensity among pig farms in Norway which indicates opportunity for incorporating mitigation practices. A valuable contribution of the current work is the framework of a farm-scale tool for assessing farm-specific mitigation options.

Functional Feeds Reduce Heart Inflammation and Pathology in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) following Experimental Challenge with Atlantic Salmon Reovirus (ASRV)

Heart and Skeletal Muscle Inflammation (HSMI), recently associated with a novel Atlantic salmon reovirus (ASRV), is currently one of the most prevalent inflammatory diseases in commercial Atlantic salmon farms in Norway. Mortality varies from low to 20%, but morbidity can be very high, reducing growth performance and causing considerable financial impact. Clinical symptoms, including myocarditis, myocardial and red skeletal muscle necrosis, correlate with the intensity of the inflammatory response. In the present study, the effects of two functional feeds (FF1 and FF2) were compared to a standard commercial reference feed (ST) in Atlantic salmon subjected to an ASRV challenge. The functional feeds had reduced levels of total lipid and digestible energy, and different levels and proportions of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA). The objective was to determine whether these feeds could provide effective protection by decreasing the inflammatory response associated with HSMI. Histopathology, viral load, fatty acid composition and gene expression of heart tissue were assessed over a period of 16 weeks post-infection with ASRV. The viral load and histopathology scores in heart tissue in response to ASRV infection were reduced in fish fed both functional feeds, with FF1 showing the greatest effect. Microarray hierarchical cluster analysis showed that the functional feeds greatly affected expression of inflammation/immune related genes over the course of the ASRV infection. Viral load correlated with up-regulation of pro-inflammatory genes at the early-mid stages of infection in fish fed the ST diet. Expression of inflammatory genes 16-weeks after ASRV challenge reflected the difference in efficacy between the functional feeds, with fish fed FF1 showing lower expression. Thus, severity of the lesions in heart tissue correlated with the intensity of the innate immune response and was associated with tissue fatty acid compositions. The present study demonstrated that dietary modulation through clinical nutrition had major influences on the development and severity of the response to ASRV infection in salmon. Thus, HSMI was reduced in fish fed the functional feeds, particularly FF1. The modulation of gene expression between fish fed the different feeds provided further insight into the molecular mechanisms and progression of the inflammatory and immune responses to ASRV infection in salmon.

Acquired equine polyneuropathy in Norway and Sweden: A clinical and epidemiological study

Acquired equine polyneuropathy (AEP, also known as 'Scandinavian knuckling syndrome'), is a serious disease of unknown aetiology, which emerged clustering in horse farms in Sweden, Norway and Finland in the 1990s. Clinical and epidemiological data regarding the syndrome are scarce. To describe the clinical and epidemiological findings and outcome in outbreaks of AEP and compare risk factors in affected and unaffected horses on affected farms in Norway and Sweden during 2007-2009. Neurological examinations were performed and data collected regarding demography, usage, turning-out, feeding, prophylactic strategies and long-term outcome. Thirteen affected farms with 157 horses of various breeds, of which 42 were AEP cases, were studied. Typical digital extensor dysfunction and knuckling of pelvic limbs were noted in 34 definitive cases. Eight additional plausible cases had a severe, acute course of neurological disease. There were no signs of brain orcranial nerve dysfunction. Cases occurred from December to April, with new cases emerging within 100 days of the index case. Affected and unaffected horses were fed wrapped forage. Prevalence for AEP was 27% and case fatality 29%. The median duration of AEP in survivors was 4.4 months (1-17 months). Survivors returned to full work within 19 months (median 6.6 months). Acquired equine polyneuropathy was less prevalent in horses aged > 12 years and young horses had a higher chance of survival than older horses. Management factors did not differ between affected and unaffected horses. Acquired equine polyneuropathy is a potentially fatal neurological disease characterised by pelvic limb knuckling. Surviving horses returned to normal function after a long period of rest. Cases were clustered in farms during the winter/spring season. Wrapped forage was used in all farms. The results provide valuable insights into the dinical examination, handling and prognosis of cases of AEP, an emerging neurological disease of unknown aetiology in horses.