Farmland Biodiversity Research Articles

High quality remnant patches in a complex agricultural landscape sustain high spider diversity

Remnant vegetation in agricultural landscapes can play a significant role in supporting farmland biodiversity, especially agriculturally important arthropods such as spiders. Little is known about spider composition in native vegetation remnant patches, or which environmental parameters influence within-patch diversity. Furthermore, data on spider diversity is limited in the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR), a global botanical hotspot of great conservation value. Here we sampled spiders in 12 remnant natural fynbos (sclerophyllous) patches in a fragmented agricultural landscape. Multiple environmental variables were measured at each site (within patch variables and landscape variables), to determine their influence on spider genus richness and assemblage structure. We also did this for ground- and plant-dwelling genera, as well as for their assemblages separately. Overall, natural vegetation remnants supported high spider diversity, even rare and range restricted species. Both patch- and landscape-scale variables influenced spider diversity and assemblage structure. Remnant patch size influenced the assemblage structure of all guilds, and positively influenced overall spider diversity. Similarly, the amount of remnant vegetation in the landscape influenced the assemblage structure of most guilds, as well as positively influencing overall spider diversity, across multiple spatial scales. Additional important variables were rockiness, alien invasive tree species richness and topographic complexity. We show that spider diversity is maintained by remnants of good quality natural vegetation, but also influenced by the complexity of the landscape. Preservation of remnant vegetation patches, regardless of size, throughout the privately-owned farm conservancy landscape maintains spider diversity, and so private land conservation should be promoted.

Reduced biodiversity in modernized villages: A conflict between sustainable development goals

Abstract Despite large conservation efforts to halt the loss of farmland biodiversity in Europe, negative population trends are still observed, especially for common species. Old villages and human settlements are biodiversity hotspots and important breeding habitats for farmland birds, but recent requirements for energy saving measures and improved living comfort have changed their architecture and habitats. Consequently, modernization of villages may negatively affect bird diversity due to the loss of nesting and foraging sites. We investigated how the abundance and diversity of birds breeding in 104 Polish villages varied in relation to the degree of modernization as estimated by the proportion of new and renovated homesteads. Abundance of building‐nesting species, but not tree‐nesting species, declined by 50% across a gradient of old to highly modernized villages. The contribution of new versus renovated houses to the observed decline was similar. Synthesis and applications. Rural modernization may have a dramatic effect on abundance of birds nesting on buildings, thus may be an important and overlooked contributor to farmland bird population declines in Europe. Villages and rural properties fall outside of current conservation policy as they are neither protected areas nor agricultural lands (where agri‐environmental schemes can be applied). The observed conflict between sustainability goals such as increased building energy efficiency and biodiversity conservation suggests that sustainable rural development should better link modernization with conservation measures, for example, by constructing nesting sites when renovating and building new houses. The challenge is to design modern buildings that are both energy‐efficient and biodiversity‐friendly to generally improve quality of life for rural communities and to halt or reduce farmland bird declines in rural landscapes. Designers and architects can find inspiration from traditional architecture and add a variety of nest‐box types.

Biodiversity modelling in practice - predicting bird and woody plant species richness on farmlands

ABSTRACT In light of decreasing species richness on farmland and an increasing awareness of biodiversity issues among customers and food companies, concepts and models to evaluate and enhance farmland biodiversity are greatly needed. It is important that the models are easy to apply as they have to be utilized by practitioners such as farmers and their consultants. In this study, simple but valid predictors were identified to rapidly assess the species richness of birds and woody plants in hedgerows, an important farmland landscape element. Hedgerows were sampled in seven agricultural landscapes throughout Germany. By means of automatic model selection procedures, linear regression models were estimated to predict bird and woody plant species richness. Cross validation procedures were carried out in order to visualize model selection uncertainty and estimate the prediction error. Due to a rather high prediction error, the model for plants can only be recommended for use when field work is not feasible. The model for birds, however, explained 70.8% of the variance in species numbers. It may help farmers, food companies and nature conservation agencies to rapidly evaluate bird species richness in hedgerows on farmland and to identify potentials and appropriate measures for enhancing it.

Do improved pollination services outweigh farm-economic disadvantages of working in small-structured agricultural landscapes? – Development and application of a bio-economic model

Increases in the size of agricultural fields, the loss of permanent green field edges and other semi-natural habitats have accompanied the intensification of agriculture, and are still ongoing. From a farm economic perspective, an increase in field size increases efficiency mainly due to cost savings. However, recent evidence suggests that increases in field size might lead to the loss of ecosystem services provided by farmland biodiversity, but this trade-off is rarely considered. Here, we aim to quantify the economic and ecological effects of these changes by developing a bio-economic simulation-based land-use modelling framework based on spatially explicit data from an agricultural region in Germany. The results show a substantial decrease in flower visitation in oilseed rape when field sizes increase and permanent green edges are lost. This also leads to a decrease in pollination from wild bees and affects yields and farm economics. However, this loss in agricultural gross margin is overcompensated by economic gains of field enlargement. We conclude that further, more comprehensive evaluations are required and suggest that maintaining fine-grained agricultural landscapes with permanent field margins in the long term may require incentives to farmers, as well as innovations that allow to farm small fields at lower costs.

Large-scale versus small-scale agriculture: Disentangling the relative effects of the farming system and semi-natural habitats on birds’ habitat preferences in the Ethiopian highlands

While the Western World is facing an inexorable decline of its farmland biodiversity following continuous intensification of production modes, agricultural landscapes in Africa are still largely dominated by small-scale subsistence farming operated by smallholders, mostly harbouring high biodiversity. However, as most African countries are confronted to an unprecedented population growth and a rapid economic development, efforts to intensify food production are widespread, with concomitant potentially negative effects on biodiversity. We conducted a study in a highly contrasted agricultural landscape of the Ethiopian highlands comprising two distinct farming systems: large-scale farming relying on modern, combine machinery and technology (e.g. enhanced crop varieties, application of herbicides, pesticides and synthetic fertilizers) vs small-scale traditional farming. Our objective was to disentangle the effects upon avian biodiversity of the operating farming system and the extent of semi-natural habitat features in the wider landscape. We performed a model selection approach to assess habitat selection by the overall bird community as well as the wintering, endemic and open habitat species, respectively. Our results show that habitat preferences of birds in the Ethiopian highlands were mainly driven by the amount of semi-natural habitats within the landscape, with varying effects depending on the farming system itself. While large-scale farming had overall more negative effects on birds, some typical open habitat species were mostly restricted to these wide-open landscapes. Our findings thereby suggest that both farming systems could coexist as long as semi-natural habitats are preserved and agricultural management maintained in its current practices. We emphasize the urgent need to conduct further studies integrating the socio-economic aspects in order to better predict future impacts of agricultural intensification processes on African farmland biodiversity.

Long-term effects of combined land-use and climate changes on local bird communities in mosaic agricultural landscapes

Rural landscapes of western Europe have considerably changed in the last decades under the combined pressure of climate and land use changes, leading to a dramatic decline of farmland biodiversity, including common farmland birds. The respective roles of climate and land use and cover changes in driving bird population trends are primarily assessed at national or continental levels. Yet, it is often challenging to integrate their intertwined effects at such large scales due to the lack of data on fine-scale land cover changes. Here, we used a long-term bird monitoring scheme, combined with a land cover survey, conducted during 30 years (1981–2011) across 780 sites in a 20,000 ha study area in south-western France, dominated by low-intensity farming systems. We tested the direct effect of temporal changes in climate and land use on the dynamics of two community-level metrics: the bird Community Thermal Index (CTI) and bird Community Generalization Index (CGI). We used a novel method to assess the contribution of species-specific dynamics to CTI and CGI trends. We observed a significant increase in CTI and a significant decrease in CGI between 1981 and 2011, i.e., bird communities now have higher thermal preferences and are more specialized than 30 years ago. Bird CTI and CGI changes were both related to local climate- and land use-related drivers, especially mean temperature increase and hedgerow loss. Trends in CTI and CGI were primarily driven by the loss of cold-dwelling and generalist species, and secondly by a gain in hot-dwelling specialists. Our long-term study brings new empirical evidence that the effects of climate and land cover changes on bird communities are intrinsically intertwined, and need to be considered together to monitor and predict the future of farmland biodiversity. It also suggests that low-input, diversified agriculture combined with the maintenance of semi-natural habitat cover can contribute to the conservation of both specialist and generalist bird communities in agricultural landscapes experiencing rapid climate change.

Effect of agri-environment measure for the aquatic warbler on bird biodiversity in the extensively managed landscape of Biebrza Marshes (Poland)

Farming intensification is one of the main factors responsible for bird populations declining in agricultural landscapes. Therefore, many countries implement agri-environment schemes (AES) to protect farmland biodiversity. However, recent studies showed that the effectiveness of AES varies between positive and negative.In this study we evaluated the effect an agri-environment measure, designed for aquatic warblers (AWM), has on bird biodiversity in a marginal, extensively managed landscape under strong succession pressure. We applied a point-count method to survey birds in areas within the AWM and outside the AWM and described habitat characteristics around these points.We found that AWM areas had a positive effect on the occurrence of aquatic warblers and six other bird species, meadow and Polish AES bird species richness; negatively affected the occurrence of three bird species and the all bird species richness, and was neutral for the occurrence of another ten bird species and for farmland bird species richness. We also show the diverse and sometimes mutually exclusive habitat preferences of the various species.The AWM implemented in extensively managed landscape successfully encouraged farmers to conduct extensive mowing of meadows and so stopped the habitat succession process. Simultaneously, if AWM is considered on a micro scale, it strongly supported some species but also eliminated others. Therefore, we suggest that management plans should be created at a landscape level. Such approach enables the determination of areas in which different species or groups of species are prioritised before others, allowing for the conservation of overall biodiversity.

Assessing the distribution and extent of High Nature Value farmland in the Republic of Ireland

Abstract High Nature Value farmland (HNVf) is managed farmland that has high biodiversity and often supports species of conservation concern. Assessing the distribution and extent of such farmlands is useful for appropriate targeting of conservation measures and supporting associated rural communities. The conservation of species and habitats within HNVf is also among the aims of the EU’s (European Union) Biodiversity Strategy and is a focus of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Rural Development Programme. Data on HNVf distribution and extent is required for both policy implementations under the CAP for income support payments and reporting within the EU Biodiversity strategy. Here, we extend the scope of the methodology from a previous study by presenting a finer spatial resolution to map the likely distribution of HNVf in the Republic of Ireland using indicators adapted for the Irish context and weighted based on expert knowledge and literature. The indicators (and weighting) used were: semi-natural habitat cover (40%, from CORINE land cover), stocking density (30%, from Land Parcel Information System; LPIS), hedgerow/scrub cover (10%), river and stream density (10%), and soil diversity (10%). Indicators were included in a weighted sum model (WSM) that combined raster indicator inputs, representing relative weights and the output had a tetrad-scale (2 km × 2 km) resolution. We used various datasets (national nature designations, Irish semi-natural grasslands survey, intensive farmland points and field points with semi-natural habitats) to validate the final HNVf map. To do this, all datasets were converted from polygon to point data format by considering the centroid of the polygon as the data point and overlaid on the HNVf map to assess the possible incidence. Of the 13,660 tetrads defined as farmland in the analysis, 4602 (33.7%) had a high or very high likelihood of being HNVf. About 54% of the latter set of tetrads partly or wholly coincided with Natura 2000 sites; about 84% partly or wholly coincided with NPWS priority areas for conservation of biodiversity in agri-environment schemes, and about 53% were in upland areas (>150 m a.s.l.). Validation data representing extensive farmland systems had an increasing incidence in tetrads with higher values (HNVf likelihood); the opposite was true for validation data representing intensive farmland. The final output was combined with the NPWS priority areas for farmland biodiversity conservation because the latter represented Type 3 HNV that is poorly represented by our method (which best represents Type 1 HNV). To our knowledge, this study represents the most comprehensive method to estimate and validate the extent and distribution of HNVf in the Republic of Ireland. It indicates that a substantially higher proportion of the country is likely to comprise HNVf than previously estimated, and large areas of HNVf occur outside the Natura 2000 network, and in lowland areas. Improved knowledge of the distribution and extent of HNVf provides a valuable tool to help improve the decision-making process for policy targeting, implementation and monitoring of HNVf. The methodology presented here could be adapted by other EU countries that have relevant national-scale datasets.

Effects of the European Common Agricultural Policy on Preserving Biodiversity: Farmland Birds in Slovenia

Abstract This paper assesses the effects of agricultural payments on changes in farmland bird diversity in Slovenia. Diversity was measured by Shannon index, while the impacts were estimated with the first-difference estimator on panel data for municipalities with and without special protection areas for birds. The effects of agricultural payments on farmland biodiversity require that the balance of financial instruments be taken into account when the agricultural policy is being drafted. The effects of payments in municipalities with and without special protection areas indicate the need to consider the landscape perspective and adapt schemes to landscape type while preparing the national agricultural policy.

Constraints and opportunities for mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services in the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy: Insights from the IPBES assessment for Europe and Central Asia

The European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), being one of the strongest drivers of agricultural land-use practices, has a substantial impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Member States. The initial focus of the CAP to increase and intensify agricultural production affected water and land qualities and contributed to the degradation of traditional agricultural landscapes, cultural identities, and erosion of typical farmland biodiversity. Recent CAP reforms have begun to consider biodiversity and ecosystem services, but still fall short of a thorough mainstreaming approach. The objectives of this paper are to point out main findings regarding (i) key shortcomings of the current CAP, and (ii) major opportunities to enhance the mainstreaming of biodiversity and ecosystem services within the CAP. The paper is based on insights generated in the sub-global assessment of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) for Europe and Central Asia11A major part of this contribution is based on an earlier, pre-peer reviewed version of Ring et al. (2018): Ring, I., Sandström, C., Acar, S., Adeishvili, M., Albert, C., Allard, C., Anker, Y., Arlettaz, R., Bela, G., ten Brink, B., Fischer, A., Fürst, C., Galil, B., Hynes, S., Kasymov, U., Marta-Pedroso, C., Mendes, A., Molau, U., Olschewski, R., Pergl, J., & Simoncini, R. (2018): Chapter 6: Options for governance and decision-making across scales and sectors. In: IPBES (2018): The IPBES regional assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services for Europe and Central Asia. Rounsevell, M., Fischer, M., Torre-Marin Rando, A., Mader, A. (eds.). Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Bonn, Germany, pp. 661-802.. Our results illustrate the evolution of agricultural policy objectives and instruments applied in the CAP, and their effects on selected ecosystem services and biodiversity. We shed light on key shortcomings of existing policy and provide recommendations for further CAP reforms to achieve more effective biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of ecosystem services.

Carabid functional diversity is enhanced by conventional flowering fields, organic winter cereals and edge habitats

The continued decline in farmland biodiversity in Europe despite substantial funding for agri-environment schemes (AES) has prompted calls for more effective biodiversity conservation measures. The current AES regime allows for both holistic measures, such as organic farming, that broadly target the agricultural environment and biodiversity-specific measures, such as flowering fields, but little is known of their relative efficacies. To address this gap, we studied carabids in 48 arable fields that presented four crop types under different management practices along a gradient of landscape complexity: (a) conventionally managed crop (winter wheat), (b) biodiversity-specific AES under conventional management (sown flowering field), (c) organically managed mono-crop (winter spelt) and (d) organically managed lentil-mixedcrop (lentil intercropped with cereal or camelina). For these crop-use types, we compared functional diversity of carabid assemblages at the edge and center of the fields. Using pitfall traps, we collected more than 55,000 carabids of 95 species over two years. We characterized diversity using community weighted means and functional divergence of three ecological traits – body size, feeding type, and flight ability. Conventional flowering fields and organic winter spelt, but not organic spring sown lentil-mixed-crop, increased the proportion of plant-feeding carabids; moreover, trait characteristics and their divergences were most affected by field edges, with smaller, less carnivorous and more flight-enabled carabid assemblages found there than in the center. Divergence of body size and feeding type but not of flight ability was larger at the field edges than centres. Surrounding landscape complexity did not affect carabid traits. We conclude that future AES policy should avoid strict decisions between biodiversity specific- and holistic measures. Instead, priority should be given to a diversity of different measures, targeting the enhancement of edge habitats as well as productive and non-productive measures.

Organic farming and associated management practices benefit multiple wildlife taxa: A large‐scale field study in rice paddy landscapes

Abstract Organic farming has potential for the conservation of global biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Despite this, knowledge of the effects of organic farming systems on farmland biodiversity is limited in Asia, the worldwide leader in rice production. We conducted the first national‐scale study to investigate the effects of three different rice farming systems (conventional, low‐input and organic) and specific management practices (e.g. herbicide and insecticide applications, crop rotation and levee‐vegetation management) on species richness and abundance of multiple taxonomic groups (plants, invertebrates, Pelophylax and Hyla japonica frogs, cobitid loaches and birds) in Japan during 2013–2015. Organic fields supported the highest richness and abundance of several taxonomic groups (native/Red List plants, Tetragnatha spiders, Sympetrum dragonflies and Pelophylax frogs), followed by low‐input and conventional fields. We also found taxon‐specific responses to specific management practices. For instance, plant richness and Tetragnatha and Sympetrum abundance increased with reduced herbicide and/or insecticide applications. Sympetrum and cobitid loach abundance increased in the absence of crop rotation, whereas H. japonica abundance increased with crop rotation. Pelophylax abundance increased with an increased height of levee vegetation. At spatial scales larger than single fields, waterbird richness and abundance were positively correlated with the proportion of organic rice fields, presumably due to increased prey abundance. Meanwhile, landbird richness and abundance were positively associated with annual precipitation and annual mean temperature, suggesting that such climate increases food availability. Synthesis and applications. We highlight the positive effects of organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity relative to conventional farming in rice paddies. We also provide the scientific basis of the current agri‐environmental schemes in Japan, subsidising organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity. The taxon‐specific associations with management practices indicate that avoiding crop rotation, maintaining levee vegetation and organic farming at large spatial scales can also be wildlife friendly. These practices may thus be incorporated into agri‐environment schemes for effective biodiversity conservation.

The influence of landscape alterations on changes in ground beetle (Carabidae) and spider (Araneae) functional groups between 1995 and 2013 in an urban fringe of China

Urbanization is one of the main causes of land use change, especially from 1990 to now in China, but knowledge of its effect on different functional groups of carabids and spiders in the adjacent rural areas over time remains limited. We assessed whether landscape alterations (1993 versus 2013) drove changes in carabid and spider functional groups (1995 versus 2013) in an agricultural landscape located on the fringe of a rapidly growing city in China. Although built-up land increased from 6.3% to 32% across the whole landscape, the overall species richness of carabids and spiders did not decline. In contrast to the reduction in species richness of large carabids, the species richness of small carabids increased. Species richness of both large and small spiders increased. The species composition of carabids and spiders significantly changed between 1995 and 2013. Species compositions of large, predatory carabids and large or ground-hunting spiders were more sensitive to the changes in built-up land than those of small, omnivorous carabids and small or web-building spiders. The amount of grassland (abandoned land covered by wild grass) also increased as farmers began to work in the city. The increased grassland significantly contributed to the increased species richness of predatory and macropterous carabids. However, increased landscape diversity did not affect species richness of either carabids or spiders. High landscape diversity was related to reduction in field size, resulting in a decrease in the mean body size of carabids. This indicates that evaluating the effect of landscape change on carabid and spider diversity should be based on their functional traits. Different taxa, even different functional groups, have different responses to landscape change. The increase in built-up land did not immediately reduce species richness at the urban fringe. Increasing wild grasslands and combining smaller fields may benefit farmland biodiversity in this region.

A suboptimal array of options erodes the value of CAP ecological focus areas

As a part of the greening of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy in 2013, Ecological Focus Areas (EFA) became mandatory for many European farmers, with the aim to enhance on-farm biodiversity. However, their effects on biodiversity have been disputed. In this interdisciplinary effort, we assessed the effects of current and alternative formulations of EFA regulations in Sweden. By complementing economic and ecological modelling with interviews with persons at administrative and advisory bodies and a narrative decision game with farmers, we were able to demonstrate key shortcomings of mandatory EFAs as a policy instrument. In particular, we evaluated if requirements to increase the quality of EFAs and regulations allowing their collective implementation, have the potential to increase their effectiveness in benefitting functional biodiversity. We focused on how biodiversity underpinning crop pollination and natural pest control would be affected by alternative regulations. First, we show that several of the possible EFA measures have no or minimal actual effect on biodiversity. Second, we demonstrate the need for appropriate incentives for farmers to choose and place agri-environmental measures in an environmentally desirable way. The EFA regulation is experienced as complicated and without any clear environmental benefits for the participants in this study. As a result, the confidence in the policy is undermined. Third, we demonstrate the challenge of devising compulsory measures to improve biodiversity that also need to fulfil demands on being flexible and easy to administrate. Our results indicate that the latter goal has taken precedence over the former, and thus providing an explanation of the poor design of the EFA regulation from a biodiversity perspective. We argue that to enhance biodiversity in farmland through general agri-environmental measures, only measures with clear benefits for biodiversity can be on the menu. Further, better information as well as incentives for optimizing EFA placement for biodiversity on farms are needed and combined with stricter rules on quality and placement where appropriate.

A trait-based approach to plant species selection to increase functionality of farmland vegetative strips.

Farmland vegetative strips are a proven source of support for ecosystem services and are globally used to mitigate effects of agricultural intensification. However, increasing pressures on agricultural land require increases in their functionality, such as supporting multiple ecosystem services concurrently.The plant species sown in a vegetative strip seed mix determine the establishment, plant community, and ecosystem services that are supported. Currently, there is no clearly defined or structured method to select plant species for multifunctional vegetative strips.Plant traits determine how plants support ecosystem services. Also, the establishment and persistence of plant communities is influenced by key internal and external factors. We propose a novel, evidence‐informed method of multifunctional vegetative strip design based on these essential traits and factors.This study had three distinct stages. The first identified plant traits that support water quality protection, pollinators and/or crop pest natural enemies, using existing research evidence. We then identified key factors affecting plant community establishment and persistence. Finally, we applied these standardized methods to design a multifunctional vegetative strip for a specific case study (UK lowland farmland).Key plant traits identified, included floral display size, flower color, nectar content, leaf surface area, leaf trichome density, percentage fine roots, root length, rooting depth, and root density. Key internal and external establishment factors included life history, native status, distribution, established competitive strategy, associated floristic diversity, flowering time and duration, and preferred soil type and pH. In the United Kingdom case study, we used five different plant traits and all of the identified factors to design a seed mix for a multifunctional vegetative strip.We present a transferable method of vegetative strip design that can be adapted for other ecosystem services and climates. It provides landowners and advisors with an evidence‐informed approach to increase field margin functionality while supporting farmland biodiversity. OPEN RESEARCH BADGES This article has earned an Open Data Badge for making publicly available the digitally‐shareable data necessary to reproduce the reported results. The data is available at https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.8t52n38.

Monitoring environmental effects on farmland Lepidoptera: Does necessary sampling effort vary between different bio-geographic regions in Europe?

In agro-ecosystems, environmental monitoring is fundamental to detect and survey changes related to land use change and management practices. Butterflies and moths have often been suggested as suitable indicators for monitoring environmental effects on biodiversity in farmlands. Here, we estimated the required sample size and monitoring effort necessary to run a Lepidoptera survey in European farmland, assessing in particular if monitoring investment would differ between representative bio-geographical regions.We operated linear 1-km long transect routes in farmland of Romania, Spain and Sweden from 2013 to 2015, and recorded butterflies and burnet moths (Papilionoidea, Zygaenidae). The transects were walked back and forth four times a season, and replicated yearly. The lepidopteran diversity was high in farmlands of Romania and Spain, but comparatively low in Sweden. The coefficient of variation (CV) of recorded species number differed between countries being lowest in Sweden and highest in Spain. In general, the CV dropped above a transect length of 400–800 m, thus indicating an increase in statistical power. Assuming a non-parametric test for matched samples, power calculations were conducted with the raw count data and with log-transformed count data for comparison. When using log-transformed data, the required sample size to detect an effect was less than 10 transects per country or region (in order to detect a 10% loss of species or a decrease of 30% in total abundance). Specific subgroups of species, e.g. protected species or specific indicator groups, showed a higher variance, thus requiring a higher sample size to detect effects ranging from 12 to 16 transects (equivalent to 21–29 working days per country and year). When using original, untransformed count data a considerably larger sample size would be needed. Actual time to be invested in field work differed between countries due to contrasting regional constraints and conditions. Nevertheless, the final monitoring effort in working days was similar between countries as the factors involved balanced out each other, in particular due to the differing year-to-year variations.Our study demonstrated the feasibility of an environmental monitoring programme in arable land using farmland butterflies across Europe. We present a suitable approach and guidelines as well as the necessary effort to be invested in future Europe-wide monitoring programmes of butterflies in agro-ecosystems, based on predictions of statistical power.

Weak effects of farming practices corresponding to agricultural greening measures on farmland bird diversity in boreal landscapes

ContextThe current Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union includes three greening measures, which are partly intended to benefit farmland biodiversity. However, the relative biodiversity effects of the greening measures, including joint effects of landscape context, are not well understood.ObjectivesWe studied the effects of increasing crop diversity, proportions of production grasslands and fallows, corresponding to CAP greening measures, on open farmland bird diversity, whilst controlling for the effects of distance to forests, field edge density and proportion of built-up areas.MethodsWe surveyed open farmland birds using territory mapping in Southern Finland. We modelled effects of greening measures and landscape structure on farmland birds (7642 territories) using generalised linear mixed models.ResultsIncreasing proportions of grasslands increased farmland bird species richness and diversity in open farmland, whereas increasing proportions of fallows increased bird diversity. Increasing crop diversity benefited individual species, but not species richness or diversity. Increasing field edge densities consistently increased the species richness of all farmland species, in-field nesters and non-crop nesters, as well as total farmland bird diversity. The relative effect of edge density was much stronger compared to the three greening measures.ConclusionsOur results show that promoting fallows and grasslands, in particular grazed grasslands and various types of semi-natural grasslands, has the highest potential to benefit farmland bird diversity. Maintaining or increasing field edge densities, currently not supported, seems to be of even more benefit. In open farmland, with little or no field edges, fallows and grasslands are particularly beneficial.

Increasing the proportion and quality of land under agri-environment schemes promotes birds and butterflies at the landscape scale

The intensification of agricultural practices that Western nations have experienced after World War II has led to an alarming decline in farmland biodiversity. With the aim of stopping and even reversing this decline, agri-environment schemes (AES) have been implemented in many European countries since the 1990s. In Switzerland, farmers are required to manage at least 7% of their land in the form of biodiversity promotion areas (BPA), which are extensively managed, wildlife-friendly farmland habitats such as hay meadows and traditional orchards. We investigated how the occurrence and characteristics of these BPA influence birds and butterflies in the Swiss lowlands. Butterfly species richness and abundance increased by 22% and 60%, respectively, when the proportion of BPA in the landscape increased from 5% to 15%. Likewise, bird species richness increased, but to a lesser extent, with the proportion of BPA in the landscape. For birds, the proportion of BPA characterized by a high ecological quality played a role in promoting both priority-farmland and red-listed species. For both taxonomic groups, the amount and quality of BPA habitats contributed more to species richness than their spatial configuration, connectivity included. This study shows that AES measures implemented at the field scale have positive effects on mobile species that are noticeable at the landscape scale, and that the fraction of AES in the cultivated landscape matters more than their spatial configuration, which has strong implications for designing multi-functional agro-ecosystems.

Changes in Assemblages and Diversity Patterns of Carabidae (Coleoptera) from 1997 to 2014 in a Desalinized, Intensively Cultivated Agricultural Landscape in Northern China

Reclamation of salinity-affected land for intensive agricultural production represents a highly promising pathway towards feeding our increasing global population. Nonetheless, biodiversity and ecosystem service responses to agricultural intensification in desalinized landscapes remain poorly understood. In our study, we analyzed long-term diversity responses of carabids as important pest control agents to agricultural intensification in desalinized landscapes by comparing data from 1997 and 2014, and we analyzed the potential role of field-margins as beetle refuge habitats. Despite agricultural intensification, carabid species richness increased significantly following desalinization, with this increase being chiefly limited to field margins. Carabid assemblages also showed a dramatic temporal species turnover, leading towards a species-rich, homogeneous community dominated by generalists. Therefore, we believe that desalinization triggered positive regional diversity responses despite simultaneous agricultural intensification, with semi-natural field margins playing an increasingly important role as local diversity hotspots. Nonetheless, the highly uniform composition of the generalist beetle assemblages and its potential implications for ecosystem functioning require further scrutiny, and the targeted management of semi-natural habitats appears crucial to optimize farmland biodiversity and associated ecosystem services in desalinized agricultural landscapes.

The role of biodiversity data in High Nature Value Farmland areas identification process: A case study in Mediterranean agrosystems

The concept of High Nature Value Farmland (HNVF) was introduced in the early 1990s to highlight the crucial role of low intensity farming systems for the conservation of biodiversity in Europe. HNVF is a biodiversity indicator and the maintenance or the enhancement of HNVF is a goal of the EU’s rural development policy. Several different approaches currently exist for identifying such areas, and a number of studies have shown that outcomes have often been unsatisfactory, at least as concerns biodiversity conservation. In this study, we use birds as indicators to assess the correlation between HNVF types identified according to the land cover approach and farmland areas important for biodiversity in Apulia, a southern Italian region that is among the most important in the Mediterranean area for farmland biodiversity. Our results suggest that unless the current land cover approach – which is mainly based on criteria relating to vegetation types and landscape structure – is accompanied by an objective analysis of local biodiversity levels, it risks excluding from HNVF some of the most important areas for biodiversity, thus reducing indicator effectiveness because of the lack of a proper assessment of HNVF extent and quality. Thus, our study shows a possible method to better identify HNVF type 3, thus increasing the effectiveness of the HNVF indicator.