Long-term effects of combined land-use and climate changes on local bird communities in mosaic agricultural landscapes

The study aimed to assess the changes that have occurred in land use and land cover within the Maasai Mara landscape using remote sensed data from 1997 to 2017; examine the elephant distribution in relation to land use and land cover changes within the Mara landscape and to determine changes in elephant home ranges in relation to Land use and cover changes in the Mara landscape. In examining the land use and land cover changes on the elephant ranges and distribution, an integrated methodological approach was employed in which the changes that have taken place within the study area over a period of 20 years was determined by analysis involving a 10-year changes in land use and land cover using three epochs from 1997, 2007 and 2017 to generate six land use classes. The Maasai Mara Landscape (MML) supports one of the richest wildlife populations remaining on earth but over the last century, has experienced transformation notably through conversion of former rangelands into croplands. Elephants have both temporal and spatial requirements, which if not provided, render them vulnerable to the land-use practices. The study assessed land use and vegetation cover changes that have occurred and their effects on the elephant movements and distribution within the MML using an integrated methodological approach. The analysis revealed changes in land use and land cover classes over a period of 20 years for the three epochs, from 1997, 2007 and 2017. Elephant’s distribution has been restricted to areas of high vegetation densities within specific habitats hence accelerating the rate of habitat destruction and degradation due to their high densities. These changes have drastically reduced forage for elephants necessitating them to travel longer distances out of their home range in search for food. Human beings have caused land use and cover changes which have detrimental impacts on the ecosystem and ecosystem services. The Maasai Mara landscape supports one of the richest wildlife populations remaining on earth but over the last century, it has experienced land transformation notably through conversion of former rangelands used mainly for tourism and production of grains such as wheat. Land outside the national parks and the reserve is important to the future of elephant existence in Kenya. Little is known about how human occupation on these landscapes negatively affects elephants (Loxodonta africana) habitats, movement and ranges. This has been confirmed by the current continuous demarcation/fencing of land in most areas in Narok County. Elephants like other landscape species, have both temporal and spatial requirements, which if not provided, will render them vulnerable to the land use practices of people. The study aimed to assess the changes that have occurred in land use and land cover within the Maasai Mara landscape using remote sensed data from 1997 to 2017; examine the elephant distribution in relation to land use and land cover changes within the Mara landscape and to determine changes in elephant home ranges in relation to Land use and cover changes in the Mara landscape. The paper describes the different changes that have taken place within the MML and how these changes have affected elephant populations, their trend and distribution within the MML. In examining the land use and land cover changes on the elephant ranges and distribution, an integrated methodological approach was employed in which the changes that have taken place within the study area over a period of 20 years was determined by analysis involving a 10-year changes in land use and land cover using three epochs from 1997, 2007 and 2017 to generate six land use classes. The study found out that there were significant changes of various classes across the years. Forest, water and open shrubs coverages decreased from 1997 to 2017. Classification noted a serious problem within the study area of continuous increase of bare ground coverage across the study years. Elephant populations have been increasing within the area .at an annual rate of 2.69%. The animals are distributed all over the landscape. Distribution of elephants has been restricted to high densities within a specific habitat hence accelerating rate of habitat destruction and degradation due to their high densities within a specific habitat. These changes have reduced drastically foliage for elephants thus necessitating them to travel longer distances in search and as a result increases elephant home ranges.

Land use, land cover, and climate change impacts are current global challenges that are affecting many sectors, like agricultural production, socio-economic development, water quality, and causing land fragmentation. In developing countries like Uganda, rural areas with high populations dependent on agriculture are the most affected. The development of sustainable management measures requires proper identification of drivers and impacts on the environment and livelihoods of the affected communities. This study applied drivers, pressure, state, impact, and response model in the L. Kyoga basin to determine the drivers and impacts of land use, land cover, and climate change on livelihoods and the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the drivers and impacts of land use, land cover, and climate changes on the environment and livelihoods in the L. Kyoga basin and suggest sustainable mitigation measures. Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, field observations, and literature reviews were used to collect data. Population increase and climate change were the leading drivers, while agriculture and urbanization were the primary pressures, leading to degraded land, wetlands, and forests; loss of soil fertility, hunger, poverty, poor water quality, which are getting worse. The local communities, government, and non-government institutions had responses to impacts, including agrochemicals, restoration, and conservation approaches. Although most responses were at a small/pilot scale level, most responses had promising results. The application of policies and regulations to manage impacts was also found to be weak. Land use, land cover changes, and climate change occur in the L. Kyoga basin with major impacts on land, water, and community livelihoods. With the observed increase in climate change and population growth, drivers and impacts are potentially getting worse. Therefore, it is essential to expand interventions, provide relief, review policies and regulations, and enforce them. The findings are helpful for decisions and policy-makers to design appropriate management options.

The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is an important ecological security barrier for China and, indeed, for all Asia. Land use and land cover changes in the plateau not only affect the ecological environment and regional development of the plateau itself but also affect the stability and economic development of ecosystems in eastern China and other parts of Asia. This paper is based on an examination of the achievements of land use and cover change in the TP and a reanalysis of data including that of Climate Change Initiative Land Cover from 1992 to 2015; land use data provided by the Resource and Environmental Science Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences for 1995, 2000, 2010 and 2015; and statistical data from Qinghai and Tibet. The paper analyzes the overall characteristics of land use and land cover changes in the TP and the spatial and temporal processes and their driving forces of land use and land cover change in typical regions and land types. This research is important not only for land change science and global change research but also for the promotion of the plateau and its adjacent areas. In recent decades, research has shown that the land use and land cover structure of the TP is stable, and the proportion of first-level land use type change was less than 7% from 1992 to 2015. Most of these changes are single time changes, with multiple land change occurring only in 1.85% of the total change area. The quality of land cover has been improved in areas where no land type change occurred. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) showed an increasing trend in 24.45% of the area and a decreasing trend in only 1.31% of the area. The area of cultivated land, forest, grassland, wetland, and construction land on the plateau has increased, whereas bare land, glacier, and snow cover area has decreased. In most parts of the TP, the quality of alpine grassland has improved; however, in some areas, it has degraded at a local scale. Most of the woodland has recovered well after phased changes. Prior to 1980, there was a rapid increase in cultivated land area, but this has since become stable with only minor increases. However, the utilization intensity of cultivated land has increased significantly in recent years. Construction land has expanded significantly, and the recent growth rate has accelerated since 2010. Both the increasing speed of change and the construction land area in Qinghai Province are higher than in Tibet. There has been a general trend of a slight decrease in bare land change. In densely populated areas in the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley and the One-River-Two-Tributaries area, land types that are closely related to human utilization such as construction land, cultivated land, and artificial woodland have undergone obvious changes. In pastoral areas, such as the Northern Tibetan Plateau and the Source Regions of The Three Rivers, overgrazing and ecological construction have significantly affected land cover. In the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve, land use types are diverse; changes are complex; and land cover is more sensitive to both climate change and human activity. There are limitations to the study of land change in the plateau, such as the difficulty of meeting the needs of ecological construction with existing data and the lack of in-depth understanding of the process of land use change and its environmental effects. Field monitoring and remote sensing techniques must be strengthened in order to clarify the process of land use intensity change and its impact on the ecological environment of the TP. These improvements will better serve the construction of an ecological security barrier and the sustainable development of the region.

The combined effects of climate and land cover changes influence hydrologic responses of a basin in an offsetting or synergistic manner depending on the nature and severity of the changes. As such, estimating the impacts of these environmental changes on hydrologic responses is crucial for planning water resources management. However, such a comprehensive study is missing in most basins of Ethiopia, particularly in the Dhidhessa River basin (DRB). The aim of this study is, therefore, to quantify the combined and separate impacts of land cover and climate changes on multiple hydrologic variables for the DRB. The Calibrated Soil and Water Analysis Tool (SWAT) model and statistical techniques were integrated for this study. Quantifying the separate and combined effects of land cover and climate changes on multiple hydrologic responses at a local scale, and determining the relative contribution of the changes are the strength of this study. The result indicated better performance of the SWAT model in simulating water balance components for the DRB. Significant changes in hydrologic responses were observed in response to the land cover changes, and the increasing trends of temperature and rainfall observed during the last 30 years in DRB. The result showed increasing actual evapotranspiration (AET), streamflow, and surface runoff while decreasing groundwater recharge. Surface runoff was more affected by land cover change than by climate change, whereas streamflow and AET were more affected by climate change than land cover change during the last 30 years in the basin. The combined effects of land cover and climate changes played an offsetting effect on groundwater recharge and AET. Overall, the simulated hydrologic responses will have negative effects on water resource availability and agricultural production in the basin and the surroundings. Therefore, implementing integrated watershed management strategies, such as soil and water conservation and afforestation, could minimize the negative impact.

Introduction: Landscape changes can be monitored using geotechnologies through land use and land cover management over time, which helps identify and understand transformations in the landscape and supports decision-making processes. This study aims to analyze land use and cover change in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, Bahia, and to relate the possible causes that have currently induced such changes. This territory, located in the Caatinga biome, has its economic activities mainly concentrated in the primary and tertiary sectors. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were employed to monitor changes in land use and cover in this territory from 1985 to 2022, using images from the MapBiomas Collection 8.0. During the study period, there was a reduction in the area used for agriculture and livestock and a significant increase in urbanization, with an urban area growth of more than 380%. Additionally, water bodies also expanded, mainly due to the construction of the Pedra do Cavalo Hydroelectric Plant in 1985, which resulted in a larger flooded area. Forest formations, although fluctuating over the years, were negatively impacted by agricultural expansion and urbanization. Therefore, the use of geotechnologies such as RS and GIS proves to be an effective tool for environmental monitoring, enabling the identification and management of land use changes and contributing to the mitigation of environmental impacts. Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate land use and land cover changes in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, in order to identify the possible causes currently driving these transformations. . Theoretical Framework: Remote Sensing (RS) is a science that maps Earth’s surface targets using sensors without direct contact. It is an essential tool for understanding and monitoring land use and land cover changes, providing critical information for decision-making from multiple perspectives. Its integration with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) enhances the spatiotemporal analysis of processes such as environmental and territorial degradation. The concept of "Identity Territory," developed by SEPLAN-BA, considers sociocultural, economic, and geographic factors for territorial organization. Institutionalized by state decrees, it divides Bahia into 27 territories to promote regional public policies. The articulation of RS, GIS, and the Identity Territory framework offers an effective approach to understanding and managing land use changes in the Portal do Sertão. Method: This study analyzed land use and land cover changes in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, composed of 27 municipalities in Bahia, aiming to understand the possible driving forces behind these changes. Satellite images from the MapBiomas Brazil Collection 8.0 were used for the years 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2022. A GIS environment was used to reclassify the images into four classes based on the MapBiomas classification: Forest Formation, Agriculture, Urban Area, and Water Bodies. The total area per class was quantified for each year, and land use transition maps were generated for spatial analysis. Results and Discussion: The analysis revealed that between 1985 and 2022, the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory experienced significant transformations in land use and cover. There was a notable reduction in agricultural and livestock areas and a sharp increase in urban development, particularly in Feira de Santana and neighboring municipalities, driven by industrialization, public policies, and real estate expansion. Forest cover fluctuated, while water bodies increased following the construction of the Pedra do Cavalo Hydroelectric Plant in 1985. These changes reflect processes of urbanization, rural exodus, and territorial reconfiguration influenced by economic, social, and infrastructural factors. Research Implications: This research provides essential technical and spatial support for territorial planning in the region, assisting local governments and institutions in making more informed decisions based on historical land use patterns. The findings highlight the importance of integrated public policies focused on territorial planning, environmental preservation, and housing, especially in light of rapid population growth. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by analyzing the drivers of land use change using open-access data from MapBiomas. Its significance lies in the integration of Remote Sensing and GIS to investigate land use trends in the Portal do Sertão over the past decades, providing strategic insights to support public policy development and more effective territorial planning.

Climate change and land use land cover (LULC) changes are recognised as two of the most significant causes of environmental change. Climate change and LULC changes are related to one another. Land use change may drive climate change, and a changing climate may result in land cover changes. Climate change and LULC changes are believed to influence soil erosion. This chapter analyses the impacts of climate and LULC changes on soil erosion. The causes and effects of climate change on precipitation, temperature, solar radiation, atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and radiative forcing are discussed. The chapter includes the impacts of climate change on soil characteristics, vegetation cover, runoff, floods, and droughts and extends the impacts of these changes on water and wind erosion. The chapter explores the human alterations of LULC changes in terms of changes in the forest cover, alterations in agricultural lands, increase in urban areas, and decrease in wetland areas. The influence of the LULC changes on soil erosion and sediment production processes is discussed. Also, the combined impact of climate and LULC changes on soil erosion is explored, and mitigation strategies like sustainable land management practices and appropriate policy incentives to conserve soil are discussed.

Forest and wood land ecosystems in Tanzania occupy more than 45% of the land area, more than two thirds of which made up of the Miombo woodland. The main form of land use in the Miombo region has long been shifting and small-scale sedentary cultivation. The lack of infrastructure and prevalence of deadly diseases such as malaria and trypanosiomiasis have long limited extensive clearance for cultivation, livestock farming and settlements. However, due to positives changes in the socio-economical, political and technological setup in miombo region, the types and intensity of land use are now changing. This paper discusses preliminary results from a study conducted with the aim of contributing to the understanding of dynamics of land cover and use changes in miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania. The study area comprises four villages around the “Kitulangalo Forest Reserve”, 140 km west of Dar es Salaam on either side of the Morogoro-Dar es Salaam highway. Landsat MSS satellite images of July 1975, Landsat TM satellite images of July 2000 were used to assess land cover changes between 1975 and 2000. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), questionnaire survey and checklists for key informants were the major methods used for collecting socio-economic data. The land cover/use class of woodland with scattered cultivation has recorded the highest percentage of change between July 1975 and July 2000. While all other classes have registered positive changes, only the closed woodland class has had negative change meaning that this class has been decreasing in favour of other land cover/use classes. Recent land cover and use changes are drastic in the study area. These changes have been triggered largely by varied factors including mainly increased population density and subsequent economic activities. Economic activities including charcoal business, shifting cultivation, opening up of improved highway and pastoralism in the study area have greatly contributed to deforestation and woodland degradation. In light of these findings, there is need for: (1) Adequate land use planning and survey of village lands so as to avoid exacerbation of land use conflict and environmental degradation in the study area. (2) Agrarian reforms to eliminate open access regimes to natural resources. (3) Enforcement of fiscal policies related to the extraction of natural resource products such as timber and charcoal so as to reduce pressure on woodlands. Keywords: land use – cover change – Kitulangalo – miombo woodlands

Land Use and Climate changes are major drivers of global environmental changes. Land use changes influences climatic changes at various temporal and spatial scales. Both earlier and present researches have shown significant effects of land use land cover changes on climate. High urbanization and industrialization derived land use changes have resulted in reducing available forested and vegetated lands in developing-country cities. This study analyzed the dynamics and effects of land use land cover changes on climate considering changes in variation of temperature, pressure and rainfall amount in Owerri West, Imo State Nigeria. Landsat image analysis was employed to assess the effect of land use/land cover (LU/LC) changes overtime with climatic variables in Owerri West, Imo State Nigeria for 20years. Climatic data of three series (2002, 2012 and 2022) and remote sensing data (Landsat 7 ETM+ imagery of 2002 and 2012; Landat 8 OLI of 2022) were analyzed to determine the trend and statistical significance of the variables relationship across the 20year study period. Result showed significant land use land cover and climatic changes on built-up, forest and farmland/fallow areas across the 20year period. Urbanization derived built-up increase in the study area led to reduction of available forest and agricultural lands. Temperature increase across the 20year period was also observed as a major climatic change. Correlation of land use change against climatic change showed strong significant positive correlation justifying that land use changes affected climatic changes within the study area. It is recommended that proper land-use planning and management be adopted by relevant authorities to reduce climate change impacts which are capable of posing a global risk, affecting terrestrial ecosystems, food security, deforestation and land degradation activities.

The combined effects of climate and landscape change are likely to be contributing to widespread and pervasive declines in forest bird populations. Individual species responses vary across climatic niches and habitat requirements, but bird communities and populations in montane systems may be particularly vulnerable to climate anomalies. Previous syntheses have reviewed evidence for impacts of climate change on bird species in general, in temperate regions and in Holarctic mountain ranges. Here, we propose that the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America serve as an instructive case study due to their distinct combination of extensive temperate broadleaf forest cover, predominantly northeast–southwest orientation that bridges two major biomes and a bird assemblage that contains trailing‐edge populations of species that predominantly breed in the boreal forest. Our goal was to review the contemporary and potential future effects of both climate and land cover change on forest birds breeding in the Appalachian Mountains. Specifically, we focused on synthesizing documented and predicted changes in bird species distributions, populations and communities in response to changes in climate and land cover across this mountain range. We further compared our findings with trends from other mountain ranges across the world to assess commonalities and differences. Although there was limited literature from the Appalachian Mountains that incorporated both climate and land cover variables in models of forest bird responses, several results were consistent with studies from other montane systems, including vulnerability of cold‐associated species to warming temperatures and stronger effects predicted for future scenarios with higher greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, there were no prevailing trends that differed greatly from other mountain ranges, but potential extirpations of cold‐associated species varied along latitudinal gradients within the Appalachian Mountains region, and there was nuance in how changes in land cover and habitat conditions modified forest bird responses to climate change. We concluded our review by identifying key knowledge gaps, suggesting future directions for research and highlighting the conservation implications for forest birds in the Appalachian Mountains.

This report presents the results of a study to provide information on the hydrologic effects of potential 21st-century changes in climate, water use, and land cover in the Upper Scioto River Basin, Ohio (from Circleville, Ohio, to the headwaters). A precipitation-runoff model, calibrated on the basis of historical climate and streamflow data, was used to simulate the effects of climate change on streamflows and reservoir water levels at several locations in the basin. Two levels of simulations were done. The first level of simulation (level 1) accounted only for anticipated 21st-century changes in climate and operations of three City of Columbus upground reservoirs located in northwest Delaware County, Ohio. The second level of simulation (level 2) accounted for development-driven changes in land cover and water use in addition to changes in climate and reservoir operations. A statistical change-factor approach was used to construct future climate time series that were used in the precipitation-runoff model to compute time series of future streamflows and reservoir water levels. Monthly change factors were computed by determining differences or fractional changes between baseline historical climate time series and future climate time series consisting of outputs from selected global climate models that were included in the World Climate Research Programme's Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 3 (CMIP3). Eight sets of change factors were determined on the basis of outputs from four global climate models, each of which was run under two greenhouse-gas scenarios (the "A1b" and "A2" scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 4th assessment). The 4 global climate models whose data were used in this study were selected to represent a wide range of potential climate outcomes as compared to the entire range of potential climate outcomes associated with the 16 global climate models represented in the CMIP3 multimodel dataset. Future land-cover and water-use data were estimated for use in the level-2 precipitation-runoff simulations to account for development-driven changes in land cover and water use. Future land-cover characteristics were estimated for selected future years based on population projections and zoning plans for communities in the basin. Future water-use data for major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities were estimated from current per capita water use, population projections for 2035, and population projections for 2090 assuming full build-out. A statistical change-factor-based approach was used to estimate future water-use characteristics by major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities on the basis of reference-period historical water uses. Annual change factors that were determined for future years other than 2035 and 2090 (when the change factors could be explicitly computed) were estimated by interpolating or extrapolating linearly in time. Water uses by entities other than major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities were assumed to remain unchanged because of uncertainty about if and (or) how they might change. Results from the level-1 simulations were analyzed primarily to facilitate evaluation of climate-driven temporal changes in annual, seasonal, and monthly streamflow and water-level characteristics, as well as in maximum and minimum 7-, 30-, and 180-day average streamflow and reservoir water levels. Results from the level-2 simulations were analyzed to help evaluate and contrast (relative to level-1 results) the effects of the added development-related factors on maximums and minimum 7-, 30-, and 180-day average streamflows and reservoir water levels and duration characteristics of 7- and 30-day average streamflows and reservoir water levels. Results for 12 stream locations and 5 reservoirs in the Upper Scioto River Basin are presented primarily as a series of plots. Although it is beyond the scope of this study to address results in detail for each model-output location, selected results are discussed to illustrate potential uses and interpretations of the graph products provided in this report. In addition, general trends and patterns in streamflow and water-level characteristics are identified where possible.

The distributed hydrology–soil–vegetation model (DHSVM) was used to study the potential impacts of projected future land cover and climate change on the hydrology of the Puget Sound basin, Washington, in the mid-twenty-first century. A 60-year climate model output, archived for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), was statistically downscaled and used as input to DHSVM. From the DHSVM output, we extracted multi-decadal averages of seasonal streamflow, annual maximum flow, snow water equivalent (SWE), and evapotranspiration centred around 2030 and 2050. Future land cover was represented by a 2027 projection, which was extended to 2050, and DHSVM was run (with current climate) for these future land cover projections. In general, the climate change signal alone on sub-basin streamflow was evidenced primarily through changes in the timing of winter and spring runoff, and slight increases in the annual runoff. Runoff changes in the uplands were attributable both to climate (increased winter precipitation, less snow) and land cover change (mostly reduced vegetation maturity). The most climatically sensitive parts of the uplands were in areas where the current winter precipitation is in the rain–snow transition zone. Changes in land cover were generally more important than climate change in the lowlands, where a substantial change to more urbanized land use and increased runoff was predicted. Both the annual total and seasonal distribution of freshwater flux to Puget Sound are more sensitive to climate change impacts than to land cover change, primarily because most of the runoff originates in the uplands. Both climate and land cover change slightly increase the annual freshwater flux to Puget Sound. Changes in the seasonal distribution of freshwater flux are mostly related to climate change, and consist of double-digit increases in winter flows and decreases in summer and fall flows. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study focused to analyze the main human-induced land use and/or cover changes and their impact on the response to surface runoff from the Hayk Lake endorheic basin between 1989 and 2015. The investigation of Landsat images of years 1989, 2000 and 2015 with the aid of ArcGIS 10.1 indicated an increase in cultivation land by 137.74% at the disbursement of a decrease of 1.34% in lake water, 49.48% in shrubland, 55.84% in plantation, and 17.32% in grassland. Overall accuracy (92%–96%) and kappa values (0.90–0.95) proved that the image classifications were accurate. The impact of the changed land use and/or cover on surface runoff was investigated by simulating the surface runoff for the years 1989, 2000 and 2015, and then quantifying the individual rate of contribution of land use and/or cover change on the magnitude of simulated surface runoff using HEC-HMS modeling tool. The analysis found that land use and cover change alone increased surface runoff by 20.18% and that climate change reduced surface runoff by 120.18%. The combined effect reduced surface runoff and caused a continued decline in water level at Hayk Lake. Therefore, this study advocated basin-based lake water management strategies linked to the negative impacts of land use and land cover, and climate change on the water balance of Hayk Lake for its sustainability.

AN ASSESSMENT OF SPATIAL VARIATION OF LAND SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF MINNA, NIGER STATE NIGERIA FOR SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES

The pace of change in land use and cover in Ethiopia depends on three main factors that cause pressure on agriculture land: resettlement programmes, population growth and increasing agricultural investments. Gambella is one of the regions of Ethiopia that attracts large-scale agricultural investments that extensively drive land use and cover changes in the region. The aim of this study is to examine the rate, extent and distribution of various land use and cover changes in Gambella Regional State, Ethiopia, from 1987 to 2017. The analysis is mainly based on Landsat 5 and Sentinel 2A satellite images and fieldwork. Two Landsat Thematic Mapper and a Sentinel 2A image were used for determining the maximum likelihood of land use/cover classification. The results show that farmland decreased by 26 km2 from 1987 to 2000; however, during the last two decades, agricultural land area increased by 599 km2, mainly at the cost of tropical grasslands and forests. We found that areas cultivated by smallholder farmers increased by 9.17% from 1987 to 2000. However, small-scale farm activities decreased by 7% from 2000 to 2017. Areas cultivated by large-scale state farms totalled 202 km2 in 1987; but by 2000, this large-scale state farming had been completely abandoned by the state, and as a result, its land use has decreased to zero. Despite this, in 2017 large-scale farming increased to 746 km2. In addition, Gambella National Park, which is the nation's largest national park and ecosystem, was also largely affected by Land Use and Land Cover changes. The conversion of savannah/tropical grasslands to agricultural farmland has caused varied and extensive environmental degradation to the park. The Land Use and Land Cover changes in the Gambella region are discussed on the basis of underlying socioeconomic factors.

Water resources are becoming increasingly scarce because of the mounting demand for water associated with population growth and economic development. The availability of and need for water resources are strongly influenced by land use. Land use and land cover change can alter the regional hydrologic cycle by changing evapotranspiration (ET), runoff, soil moisture, and perhaps even precipitation, resulting in changes in water supply and demand. In addition to changes associated with land use, climate warming may significantly influence the global hydrological cycle, leading to a variety of regional hydrological changes. Higher atmospheric CO 2 levels and changing climate will influence land cover in various ways. Conversely, many types of land cover change disrupt the global carbon cycle, contributing to changes in atmospheric greenhouse gases. The drivers of climate and land cover change will be subject to complex feedbacks involving the hydrological cycle and water resources. Hence, it is important to consider the web of interacting factors affecting water resources in the context of climate and land use change. This article reviews the effects of land cover and land use change on water supply and demand, the predicted effects of global warming on water resources, the interaction between climate change and land cover change, and the combined effects of land use and climate change on water resources.