Farmers In Ghana Research Articles

Unlocking the potential of biofortified crops: economic determinants of orange flesh sweet potato adoption among smallholder farmers in Ghana

Unlocking the potential of biofortified crops: economic determinants of orange flesh sweet potato adoption among smallholder farmers in Ghana

Cocoa vs. food crops: smallholder’s seasonal food access and extension support for climate adaptation in Ghana

ABSTRACT The food security implications of the production of cocoa compared to food crops and the phenomenon of the lean season amongst smallholder farmers have been well-researched. Yet, the literature has yet to consider how climate variability affects these dynamics. This study addresses this gap by comparing the contributions of cocoa and food crops to food stability and access during extreme and erratic weather events. It then compares government extension support for households’ climate adaptation of these crops. Our data draw on the case of smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana’s Central Region and comprise a survey of 250 households, 16 focus group discussions, and 81 semi-structured interviews with smallholders, market sellers, and government officials. We find that food crops are essential for households’ food access during the cocoa lean season and when cocoa yields are reduced by climate change-related extreme or erratic weather events. However, food crop yields are themselves negatively affected by climate variability impacts. Furthermore, many farmers lack climate adaptation strategies or support for food crops as government extension services focus instead on export-driven cocoa. We argue that to promote households’ food stability, more smallholder extension support for food crop production and climate adaptation is urgently needed.

Reducing vulnerability to climate change among millet and sorghum farmers in Ghana: interrogating the contribution of climate-smart agriculture in northwestern Ghana

Reducing vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change is a global issue. One approach viewed as important in reducing farmers’ vulnerability to climate change is Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). CSA is often seen as an approach to redefine, reposition and sustainably manage agriculture. Given the importance of CSA practices in sustaining the food needs of many farm households in sub-Saharan Africa and Ghana, this study investigates CSA practices that were introduced to farmers by Center for Indigenous Knowledge and Development (CIKOD), interrogates the contributions of CSA to reducing farmers vulnerability to climate change and established the relationship between CSA and climate change adaptation. The study employed a mixed method approach, using 146 smallholder millet and sorghum farmers. Questionnaire and interviews were used to generate primary data for analysis. Descriptive statistics, involving Chi-square test and relative importance index were used to analyze the questionnaire while thematic analytical approach was used to analyze the interviews. The results of the study revealed that CSA practices such as crop rotation, weed control, contour farming, and land rotation are deployed by smallholder farmers to respond to drought, dry spell and flood in the Municipality. Asset holding capacity, credit, access to climate information, and extension services were found to be key determinants of farmers’ adoption of CSA practices. The study recommends the need for the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to provide some technical support to smallholder farmers to successfully adopt these practices for sustainable farming. Again, the study recommends the need for non-governmental organizations and development partners, which over the years have shown interest in promoting CSA practices among farmers, to continuous to support and promote the adoption of CSA by farmers.

Assessing Market Participation of Smallholder Cassava Farmers in Sekyere Central District of Ghana Using Vector Generalized Additive Ordered Models

Smallholder farmers theoretically produce and market their output to meet livelihood needs of the family under given set of resource constraints. In spite of numerous policy efforts to ensure that smallholder farmers in Ghana and rural districts in particular, exploit the economic potential of cassava production, many of them continue to produce for subsistence with limited participation in the markets. To assess and explain the levels at which smallholder cassava farmers participate in markets, the study applied the partial proportional odds model in the framework of Vector Generalized Additive model (VGAM), which comprehensively addresses conceptual, modelling and interpretational complexities implied by market participation (MP) theory. Data for the study were collected from 365 cassava farmers in Sekyere Central (SC) district of Ashanti region, Ghana. The results showed that only 32% of the farmers participated in the markets as Net sellers, while 45% and 23% participated as Autarkic producers and Net buyers respectively. The econometrics analysis revealed that household size, access to market information, age, education, market access, membership to famer or community organisation, off-farm income, farm income, livestock holdings, cassava output and cassava being cultivated as major crop, appeared statistically significant in explaining MP decisions. Five variables, namely income, livestock, produce, access to market information and cassava as major produce, failed the proportional odds assumption and entered the model unconstrained, producing regime specific estimates. These results are indicative of how conditional, on a given regime, farmers respond to changes in the factors that affect their MP decisions, in terms of intensity and direction. Farm level policies, that target cassava farm households’ participation in markets should consider regime specific strategies.

MULTIVARIATE PROBIT MODELING OF CLIMATE-SMART ADAPTATION CHOICES AMONG FARMERS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: GHANAIAN STUDY OF COCOA FARMERS

Climate change and variability pose significant challenges to cocoa production in many sub-Saharan African countries, and Ghana is no exception. Therefore, knowledge of how farmers react to climate change and its variability effects is crucial in developing policies and programs to guide the design and implementation of effective climate-smart adaptation strategies at the farm level in Africa. This study aims to examine climate-smart adaptation choices cocoa farmers make as coping strategies for climate change and variability in Ghana using a multivariate probit modeling approach. Following a multistage sampling procedure, primary data was collected from 720 cocoa farmers across the major cocoa-growing regions in Ghana. The study found major adaptation choices for cocoa farmers to include improved and resistant varieties, optimal fertilizer application, optimal pesticide application, adjusting planting/harvesting dates, shade tree management, crop diversification, non-crop diversification, and off-farm economic diversification. We further observed that farmers’ adaptation choices were significantly influenced by climate change and adaptation-related variables such as rainfall variability index, temperature variability index, climate change impact perception index, and CSA awareness as well as agroclimatic zone effects. Concerning the influence of farmer and farm-specific variables, the study identifies that sex, age, education, farm size, quality of extension services delivery, access to credit, and membership in farmer groups were significant predictors of farmers’ CSA decision choices. This study offers beneficial insights for policymakers and stakeholders on how to promote climate-smart adaptation methods among cocoa farmers in Ghana.

Understanding the factors influencing biosecurity adoption on smallholder poultry farms in Ghana: a qualitative analysis using the COM-B model and Theoretical Domains Framework.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant global threat to public, animal, and environmental health, consequently producing downstream economic impacts. While top-down approaches to addressing AMR (e.g., laws regulating antimicrobial use) are common in high-income countries, limited enforcement capacities in low- and middle-income countries highlight the need for more bottom-up approaches. Within agriculture, efforts to apply bottom-up approaches to AMR have often focused on the promotion of biosecurity, which should reduce the need for antimicrobials by mitigating disease risk and limiting AMR transmission. Traditionally, efforts to encourage biosecurity adoption have emphasized training and awareness-raising initiatives. However, a growing body of research suggests a disconnect between knowledge and behavior, highlighting the existence of a knowledge-action gap. To understand the barriers and enablers patterning the knowledge-action gap in on-farm biosecurity uptake, we draw upon models from behavioral science. We analyzed in-depth interviews and two focus group discussions with smallholder poultry producers in Ghana to understand factors underlying the intention-action gap in adopting biosecurity. As an analytical framework, we draw upon the Theoretical Domains Framework in combination with the Capability-Opportunity-Motivation Behavioral Model. While smallholder poultry farmers in Ghana were aware of the importance of biosecurity practices, they struggled with consistent implementation. Financial constraints, challenges in adapting practices to the local context, and limited resources hindered adoption. Additionally, cognitive biases like prioritizing short-term gains and underestimating disease risks played a role. However, some farmers found motivation in professional identity and social influences. These findings highlight the need for designing biosecurity interventions that consider human behavioral factors and the context in which behavior occurs. This underscores the importance of collaboration across disciplines, including veterinary science and the social and behavioral sciences. Implications and recommendations for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Effect of adoption of conservation agriculture on household food security of smallholder maize farmers in Ghana

This cross-sectional study set out to examine the effect of conservation agriculture (CA) adoption on the food security of smallholder maize farmers in the Adansi Akrofuom District in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Using the multistage sampling technique, 400 small-scale farmers who have been introduced to CA were selected. The findings of the study show that crop rotation, row planting, fertilizer application, improved seeds and cover cropping were the CA practices often implemented by the farmers. Age of the farmer, household size, years of education, religion, access to extension, frequency of group visits, and the area under CA cultivation were significant predictors of farmers' adoption of CA practices. Implementation of CA practices has a significant effect on household level of food security. There was an agreement among the farmers that access to credit is the greatest challenge they face in using CA practices. The paper proposes that efforts towards the continuous and high adoption of CA practices must be given more attention since they can affect farmers’ household food security.

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to Estimate Technical and Scale Efficiencies of Smallholder Pineapple Farmers in Ghana

This study focuses on evaluating the technical and scale efficiencies of smallholder pineapple farmers in Ghana’s Central Region. We surveyed 320 participants selected using random sampling and applied an input-oriented Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method to gauge their technical, pure, and scale efficiencies. Our findings indicate that the mean technical efficiency among these farmers is 0.505, with individual scores ranging from 0.079 to 1.000. Notably, 90.82% of the farmers are operating below maximum efficiency levels, suggesting a potential input reduction of up to 49.5% while maintaining current production levels. Relaxing the assumption of constant returns under Variable Returns to Scale (VRS) conditions reveals a notable improvement in technical efficiency, with 10.82% more farmers achieving optimal efficiency levels. Furthermore, our analysis highlights scale inefficiencies, with 67.26% of farmers operating below optimal scale levels. By increasing production by 22.8%, these scale-inefficient farmers could enhance their efficiency and productivity within existing technological frameworks. These findings underscore the importance of collaborative efforts among policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders within the agricultural value chain to implement interventions such as improving access to technology and innovation for smallholder farmers and making necessary investments in farmer education and training programs to enhance both technical and scale efficiencies in Ghana’s pineapple sector. Such initiatives can drive sustainable growth, improve farmers’ livelihoods, and bolster the sector’s overall competitiveness.

Rate of desertification, climate change and coping strategies: Insights from smallholder farmers in Ghana's Upper East Region

Climate change and desertification are global issues that are affecting agricultural activities in Sub-Saharan Africa. These phenomena have made it challenging for smallholder farmers to cope with the emerging global food crises. This article examines the evidence of desertification and climate change and how smallholder farmers in the Upper East Region of Ghana are responding to these threats. Primary data was analysed through interviews and focus group discussions. We used Landsat satellite-based annual mean Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, climate, crop production data, and reports from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and other NGOs as secondary sources. We interviewed eighty respondents using case history and snowball sampling. The mean annual NDVI declined from 0.5 in 1998 to −0.10 in 2022. NDVI values suggest a decline in green vegetation health to a negative value, suggesting a non-vegetative surface. This means that the process of desertification has progressed to severe levels, resulting in little to no vegetation cover on the land surface. Similarly, rainfall data suggests a sharp decline in annual rainfall while farmers change the types of crops and the timing of planting. Farmers discussed the impact of climate change and desertification on their livelihoods. They have implemented approaches like using synthetic fertilisers, planting drought-resistant crops, practising dry-season farming, irrigating their crops, and building social support networks. Food insecurity and land degradation are major issues due to continuous cropping and population growth. Smallholder farmers suggest providing them with affordable, drought-resistant seedlings with shorter gestation periods to increase food production and avoid insecurity.

TinyML for smart agriculture: Comparative analysis of TinyML platforms and practical deployment for maize leaf disease identification

Maize, a vital global food crop, is susceptible to various diseases impacting agricultural yield and quality, necessitating effective monitoring strategies. This study presents a comprehensive approach utilizing advanced Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) architecture for efficient maize leaf disease detection and classification. Leveraging datasets from Kaggle, Harvard Dataverse, and Mendeley, the proposed CNN maize disease detection (MDD) system integrates optimization techniques, data augmentation, batch size adjustments, and fine-tuning strategies. Evaluation through data splitting reveals significant correlations among maize leaf classifications and the influence of data augmentation on image quality. Following training, the CNN-MDD model is deployed on a Microcontroller Unit (MCU) simulation, achieving promising optimization parameters: latency of 7.60 ms, RAM size of 726.60 KB, classifier flash size of 344.70 KB, and an accuracy of 94.60 %. These optimized parameters align well with MCU specifications, highlighting the potential for practical deployment on low-cost edge devices like Arduino Ble 33 Sense. Additionally, this research contributes to the creation of a Ghanaian maize crop pest and disease dataset and the development of an optimal and cost-effective CNN-MDD MCU edge device, aiming to provide local farmers in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa with a swift, offline solution for maize disease detection, thus fostering sustainable agricultural practices. We conduct a comparative analysis of Edge Impulse and TensorFlow, two prominent machine-learning platforms for TinyML model development and deployment in various applications, including smart crop disease detection. Utilizing a dataset comprising 12,344 raw images and 7,454 augmented images of healthy and diseased maize leaves, we evaluate the workflow, features, performance, and usability of each platform. Our findings indicate that Edge Impulse holds a slight advantage over TensorFlow in terms of ease of use, reliability, and memory footprint, whereas TensorFlow offers greater flexibility, customization options, and higher accuracy. We conclude that while both platforms are suitable for crop disease detection, a combined approach allows for leveraging TensorFlow's robust training capabilities for complex neural networks alongside the simplicity of Edge Impulse for deploying models on low-powered edge devices. This synergistic approach enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of crop disease detection systems, ultimately benefiting agricultural practices and food security.

Professional networks and access to extension as drivers of sustainable agricultural practices among Ghanaian oil palm farmers

Increasing agricultural productivity through the uptake of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) offers a credible pathway to addressing food insecurity while preserving vital ecosystem resources, as such, factors that drive farmers' decisions to adopt these SAPs need examination. Most extant studies, on the adoption of SAPs, however, tend to place emphasis on socioeconomic incentives, giving little attention to the role of professional networks and institutional factors especially on oil palm which has strong links to deforestation and reduction in tree cover despite the numerous economic benefits. Using cross-sectional data from six oil palm producing regions in Ghana, this study analyses the role of producer membership, links with institutions such as NGOs, and extension access in the adoption of improved seeds, fertilizers, pest management practices, soil and moisture conservation practices, and legume cover crops among oil palm farmers in Ghana. The study employs a multivariate probit model to examine the probability of adopting SAPs and a poisson regression to model the intensity of SAPs adopted. The study also uses the instrumental variable approach to circumvent the issue of endogeneity. Results indicate that these networks and institutions significantly affect farmers’ adoption of SAPs. The study also finds heterogeneous associations with the adoption decisions depending on the type of innovation. In particular, we show evidence that farmers’ link with formal institutions is negatively associated with the adoption of diverse input intensive technologies, whereas it is positively associated with the adoption of natural resource management technologies. However, we find a consistent positive association of membership of producer organization on the adoption of different SAPs except legume cover cropping. Though differing relationships, we find that extension access and membership of producer organization are significantly associated with the intensity of SAPs adoption. Taken together, our findings suggest an integrated approach by the actors in the promotion of SAPs.

Perception and willingness to participate in warehouse receipt system: insights from cashew farmers in the Bono region of Ghana

PurposeThe warehouse receipt system (WRS) is critical for farmers because it addresses agricultural market inefficiencies, provides credit access, reduces postharvest losses and increases access to profitable markets. However, its use and implementation across the commodity value chain remain relatively limited in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly among cash crop producers. This study examines cashew farmers' perceptions of WRS implementation and determinants of farmer participation.Design/methodology/approachA total of 153 cashew farmers from the Bono region of Ghana were sampled using a multistage sampling approach. Perception index analysis and Cragg's double hurdle model were used for the analysis.FindingsThe results revealed that farmers strongly perceived that WRS augmented credit and market access. In addition, farm size, household size, annual income, perception of collateral and higher selling price determined farmers' willingness to participate in WRS.Research limitations/implicationsDespite the existence of other cashew farmers in Ghana, the study was limited to cashew farmers in Bono Region.Originality/valueDespite the plethora of benefits of WRS, it is surprising that its implementation in the cashew subsector is geographically limited to East Africa. Thus, this study is the first to provide empirical evidence on the perception of WRS implementation and further examine farmers' willingness to participate in WRS in Ghana.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-12-2023-0946.

Exploring climate change adaptation strategies of crop and livestock farmers in urban Ghana

This study investigates the climate change adaptation strategies employed by urban crop and livestock farmers in Ghana. With the increasing recognition of climate change threats to agricultural productivity and food security, it is crucial to understand urban farmers’ adaptation strategies. Through a mixed-methods approach—surveys of 191 urban farming households using a questionnaire and interviews of 13 key informants using an interview guide, data were collected from farmers in urban Ghana. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics from the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and presented in tables. The qualitative data were analysed manually based on themes and content and presented in narratives. The results indicated a significant relationship between urban farmers’ educational status and gender and their sources of climate change adaptation information. Urban farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies include planting more improved and less indigenous crop varieties and rearing of more exotic and less local breeds of animals. Again, to buffer animal production against climatic diseases, urban farmers treat their animals through vaccination, giving animals pills, disinfecting pens, and spraying animals’ bodies with chemicals. Access to agricultural extension services is the main challenge in urban farmers’ climate change adaptation. The study underscores the importance of enhancing farmers’ resilience through targeted interventions, including capacity-building initiatives, access to climate information and financial resources, and the integration of climate-smart agricultural practices into urban planning and policy frameworks. In addressing these challenges and promoting adaptive strategies, urban crop and livestock farmers in Ghana can enhance their resilience to climate change and contribute to sustainable urban agriculture and food security. This study, therefore, contributes to the urban agriculture and climate change literature by drawing attention to how crop and animal farmers in the urban neighbourhood adapt to climatic stressors.

Eliciting risk preferences in an artefactual field experiment via replication and an alternative approach

AbstractThis paper investigates risk preferences using an artefactual field experiment conducted with a non-standard subject pool of farmers in Ghana. I introduce an alternative methodology for studying preferences following replication of a seminal risk elicitation procedure by Binswanger (Am J Agric Econ 62(3):395407, 1980). An important feature of both approaches is that they are easy to understand and, hence, are particularly suitable for eliciting preferences among subjects with low levels of formal education. I successfully replicate Binswanger’s study, documenting how his original result of the moderate level of risk aversion for an average farmer can be generalized to a different country. However, using my alternative approach, whereby lotteries are presented in the loss domain, I find that half of my experimental subjects violated expected utility theory. This approach is of relevance to the current literature on studying risk preferences among subjects with poor literacy skills.

Managing Aflatoxin Contamination Threats in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Production in Ghana: The role of adoption of management strategies

Efforts to raise knowledge and awareness of smallholder groundnut farmers about aflatoxin contaminations and its management continue to pose a threat to consumers health along the food value chain. This paper examines smallholder farmers’ awareness and adoption of aflatoxin management strategies using a multistage sampling technique to sample 318 groundnut farmers in Ghana. A 5-point Likert scale and Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was used to examine the perception about aflatoxin contaminations and constraints faced in managing aflatoxins in groundnut production, respectively. A multivariate probit model was further employed to analyze the factors influencing the adoption of aflatoxin management strategies. The results revealed that 92% of the farmers were aware of aflatoxin contaminations, however, only 20.7% of the farmers had received aflatoxins training. The results also showed that farmers are in agreement about aflatoxin contaminations in groundnut production. The most commonly adopted aflatoxin management strategies by farmers were timely harvesting, crop rotation, sorting, and storage in aerated and covered environment. Furthermore, the empirical results showed that education, credit access, membership in farmer based organizations, distance to farm, off-farm activity and location had a significant influence on farmers’ adoption of all aflatoxin management strategies. Pest and disease incidence, and rainfall variability were identified as major constraints faced by smallholder groundnut farmers in Ghana. There is the need for periodic public sensitizations and technical capacity building of smallholder farmers to adopt aflatoxins management strategies which could improve groundnut productivity and ensure food security in Ghana.

Analysis of Factors Influencing Output and Cost of Soybean Production: A Comparison between Contract and Non-contract Farmers in the Northern Region of Ghana

Contract farming has emerged as a crucial remedy for bolstering the prospects of small-scale soybean farmers in Ghana. Both governmental bodies and non-governmental organizations, including the Savanna Farmers Marketing Company (SFMC), the Northern Development Authority (NDA), and the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), are actively engaging farmers in contracts to grow soybeans. This initiative is especially prominent in the Northern Region of Ghana. This study investigates the factors influencing the output and cost of soybean production, drawing a comparison between contract and non-contract farmers. The research employs stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) and translog functional forms to analyze data collected from 374 soybean growers. The findings reveal that farm size, labour, and agrochemical usage significantly impact soybean output for both contract and non-contract farmers. However, contract farmers exhibit increasing returns to scale, while non-contract farmers experience decreasing returns. Regarding production costs, the study identifies farm size, seed cost, agrochemical cost, and output as significant determinants for the pooled sample. Contract farmers' production costs are primarily influenced by farm size, seed cost, and agrochemicals, whereas non-contract farmers' costs are driven by farm size, seed cost, agrochemicals, and output. The analysis highlights the complementary and substitute relationships among input variables, providing valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the soybean industry. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to enhance productivity and cost efficiency for both contract and non-contract soybean farmers.

Fresh or dry maize or both: Which is most economical and preferred by farmers?

As a staple crop of great importance in sub-Saharan Africa, maize is essential for the production of food for humans and animals, particularly in the raising of poultry and livestock. Smallholder farmers in Ghana are the main producers of maize, and they frequently have difficulties in turning their crop into a sustainable source of income. As a result, there is an increasing need for these farmers to look into other options such as switching from traditional dry maize production to growing fresh maize. This circumstance calls for a critical analysis to ascertain whether producing for fresh or dry maize markets yields higher profitability. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to estimate the profitability of Ghana's fresh and dry maize markets, examine the factors influencing farmers' market choices as well as rank the production constraints. Data was collected from 390 maize farmers using questionnaires. Gross margin analysis, multinomial logit regression and Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance, were the methods of analysis. According to the study, fresh maize yields a profit of 78.00 pesewas for every GH¢ 1.00 invested, both alternatives generate 71.00 pesewas, and dry maize yields 67.00 pesewas. This implies that even though all three businesses are profitable, fresh maize cultivation stands out as the most lucrative. The results of the multinomial logit regression analysis showed that the choice of maize production systems is influenced by socioeconomic characteristics, farming experience, and loan availability. The Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance analysis confirms consensus on constraints, with lack of finance, pest issues, poor roads, and low maize prices as key challenges. According to the report, farmers may increase their profits by diversifying their crops to include the fresh maize market. Additionally, the government could assist these farmers by making financing more accessible to them through collaborations with financial institutions and specially designed agricultural loan programs.

Exploring the impact of agricultural innovation practices on technical efficiency: The case of smallholder pineapple farmers in Ghana

Exploring the impact of agricultural innovation practices on technical efficiency: The case of smallholder pineapple farmers in Ghana

GlobalGAP compliance costs in Ghana’s small-scale pineapple farming sector

ABSTRACT When farmers implement GlobalGAP they incur specific input costs that arise from quality requirements of the technology. However, due to the difficultly in observing and measuring food quality, previous empirical studies seldom analysed the relationship between quality improvements in food production and total costs of production. They assumed that product quality itself was exogenous and hence had no effect on productive efficiency or cost of production. This study estimates the impact of GlobalGAP on costs of production while accounting for fixed cost improvements and quality endogeneity. Data were obtained from GlobalGAP-certified small-scale pineapple farmers in Ghana. The hypothesis that product quality was exogenous was tested and rejected. Consequently, a quality-adjusted translog cost function was used to identify the main contributors to cost increases on small-scale GlobalGAP-certified pineapple farms. The estimated function exhibited economies of size, implying that most small-scale adopters are unable to increase output and benefit from lower average costs. Production costs arising from improvements in quality imposed by GlobalGAP are most sensitive to changes in plantlet price, followed by wages, agrochemical price and expenditure on capital items. Smaller small-scale farmers are much more sensitive to increases in capital expenditure than are larger small-scale farmers. Key policy recommendations include joint ventures to increase nursery capacity and competition in the market for plantlets, scrutiny of mandatory fees impacting the cost of imported labour-saving inputs, facilitating sharing arrangements between smallholders to lower the cost of on-farm infrastructure, and research to identify constraints preventing certified farmers from exploiting size economies.

Diversification And Cocoa Farm Profitability Among Cocoa Farmers in Ghana: A Conditional Mixed Process Approach

Diversification And Cocoa Farm Profitability Among Cocoa Farmers in Ghana: A Conditional Mixed Process Approach