Farmers In Ethiopia Research Articles

The impacts of widespread agricultural interventions on yields and food security in Ethiopia☆

In the past decades, the Government of Ethiopia implemented widespread interventions with the objective of modernizing the agricultural sector and stimulating transformative growth. This paper assesses the agricultural yields and food security impacts of those interventions. Combining project and remote-sensing data with a nationally representative household panel survey, we identify impacts by exploiting the temporal and geographic variation in the roll-out of the interventions implemented by the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency from 2011 to 2016. Results show that large-scale agricultural interventions are associated with higher agricultural yields and better food security outcomes. These outcomes underscore the linkages that persist between agricultural development and food security for rural households living in mostly agrarian economies and the potential for systems-wide interventions to catalyze agricultural transformation.

The Formal Seed System of Maize in Ethiopia: Implications for Reducing the Yield Gap

Smallholder farmers’ access to and use of quality seeds of improved varieties and hybrids is an integral component of sustainable maize production and the reduction of the yield gap in Ethiopia. Formal seed supply systems play a pivotal role in ensuring farmers’ access to good quality seed and increasing the productivity of maize. However, the contribution of the formal seed system to the increase in the average national maize yield in the country is not well documented. This paper specifically analyzes the formal seed supply systems and contributions of improved seed to maize productivity increase in Ethiopia. Secondary sources of information, including published and unpublished data, were used. Analysis of the seed value chain from research to commercial seed producers indicated that public and private maize hybrids dominate the formal seed system. Increased use of improved seed and associated management practices has contributed to the yield increase at the national level. For every 10,000 MT of additional maize-improved seed used by smallholder farmers, the national average maize yield increased by 400 kg per hectare (R sq. = 0.59). Hence, in addition to other yield-increasing technologies and extension support, ensuring the availability of improved seed to farmers can significantly contribute to reducing the maize yield gap between the national average yield and the average yield from on-farm demonstrations already attained by farmers in Ethiopia. Various policy interventions are suggested to improve the maize seed system performance and increase the supply of maize improved seeds.

Lowland smallholders’ livelihood vulnerability to Climate change-induced hazards in Southern Ethiopia

Livelihood vulnerability to climate change-induced hazards is a serious problem for all agro-ecological contexts, notwithstanding being more severe for various groups of lowland smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. This study used cross-sectional survey data of 422 households from three sublowland agro-ecologies to assess differences in lowland smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate change-induced hazards. Exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity indications were built based on the literature review. The vulnerability index of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the livelihood vulnerability index were calculated by giving different weights through principal component analysis (PCA) to the standardized indicators. The findings show that hot-to-warm sub-moist lowland agro-ecology is highly exposed, and sensitive and also has a lower ability for risk adaptation. This may be due to comparatively limited access to institutional infrastructure, usage of innovation, wealth status, diversification of sources of income, and social networks compared to other lowland agro-ecologies (p < 0.001). The policy implication of the study's findings is that the government and nongovernmental organizations must plan and implement sublowland agro ecology-specific adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerability to climate change-induced hazards by giving priority to the Hot-to-Warm Sub-Moist lowland Area.

Population, distribution, biomass, and economic value of Equids in Ethiopia.

Equids play a crucial role in the Ethiopian economy, transporting agricultural inputs and outputs in the dominant subsistence agricultural systems and the critical link for value chains throughout the country. However, these species are often neglected in policies and interventions, which reflects the data and information gaps, particularly the contribution of working equids to Ethiopia. To assess population dynamics, distribution, biomass, and economic value of equids in Ethiopia. Equine population data were obtained from the Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency (CSA) annual national agriculture surveys published yearbooks from 2004 to 2020. Parameters such as the number of effective service days and daily rental value were obtained from interviews and literature to estimate the stock monetary and service value of equids. Descriptive statistics were used to assess population dynamics and the geographical distribution was mapped. The estimated total Ethiopian equid population increased by more than doubled (by 131%) between 2004 and 2020 from 5.7 (4.9-6.6) million to 13.3 (11.6-15) million with 2.1 million horses, 10.7 million donkeys, and 380 thousand mules. Similarly, the number of households owning a working equid has increased. Equine populations are unevenly distributed across Ethiopia, although data were lacking in some districts of the country. The per human-capita equine population ranged from 0-0.52, 0-0.13, and 0-0.02 for donkeys, horses, and mules, respectively. The equid biomass was 7.4 (6.3-8.4) million Tropical livestock unit (TLU) (250 kg liveweight), 10% of total livestock biomass of the country. The stock monetary value of equids was USD 1,229 (651-1,908) million, accounting for 3.1% of total livestock monetary value and the services value of equids was USD 1,198 (825-1,516) million, which is 1.2% of Ethiopian 2021 expected GDP. The Ethiopian equine population has grown steadily over the last two decades. Equids play a central role in transportation and subsistence agriculture in Ethiopia and contribute significantly to the national economy. This pivotal role is insufficiently recognized in national livestock investments.

Smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate change and variability: Evidence from three agroecologies in the Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia

This study delves into the profound impact of climate change on agriculture in Ethiopia, particularly the vulnerabilities faced by smallholder farmers and the resulting implications for poverty. Focusing on three distinct agroecologies, namely: highland, midland, and lowland zones. The study employed a robust methodology, combining a cross-sectional survey, spatial-temporal trend analysis using GIS, and the development of an overall vulnerability index through the balanced weighted average method. The study, encompassing 646 households, combines data from a variety of sources and analytical tools like the vulnerability index, ArcGIS 10.8, and ERDA's IMAGINE 2015. Utilizing the LVI-IPCC scale, the study shows that climate change is an immediate vulnerability in all agroecological zones. It identifies highland areas as the most sensitive and exposed regions, while lowland households are found to be the most vulnerable in terms of overall vulnerabilities. The research reveals specific challenges faced by communities, such as inadequate health facilities and insufficient food and water supplies in both highland and lowland agroecosystems. Additionally, our investigation has observed a significant alteration in land use practices, specifically the shift from communal grazing land to private cultivation and plantations, emphasizing eucalyptus. This alteration enhances the ecosystem's vulnerability to climate disturbances. The study suggests targeted interventions, such as advocating for sustainable land-use practices, afforestation, and adopting climate-smart agriculture practices. It is important to implement policy measures that prioritize conserving and restoring shrubland, grazing land, and natural forests to ensure both long-term socio-economic and ecosystem resilience. The study's nuanced insights are instrumental in understanding the diverse challenges posed by climate change in Ethiopian agriculture, supporting informed policymaking and sustainable interventions.

Response of tef yield and yield components to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers.

The challenge facing Ethiopian farmers are the combination of low soil fertility and reduced agricultural productivity. The study aimed to quantify nitrogen and phosphorus-containing fertilizers for tef production in Sekota and Lasta-Lalibela districts, using four nitrogen and three phosphorus levels from urea and triple super phosphate sources. The Results showed that nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers significantly affected tef yield and yield components. Application of nitrogen at the rate of 92 kg ha-1 increased tef grain yield by 131.01%, 87.78% and 182.23% in Woleh, Sayda and Lasta Lalibela districts, respectively, compared to control treatment. Similarly, 23 kg ha-1 phosphorus increased tef grain yield by 7.42 and 8.52% in Woleh and Lasta Lalibela, respectively. In Lalibela and Woleh, the application of 92 kg N ha-1 resulted in a maximum net benefits of 2099.6 and 2007 United States Dollar (USD) respectively. Furthermore, in Sayda, the application of 92 kg N ha-1 and 23 kg P2O5 ha-1 yielded a net benefit of 1812.55 USD. The marginal rate of return (MRR) from these applications was 539.6% in Lalibela, 781% in Woleh and 352.44% in Sayda. Therefore, application of 92 N and 23 kg P2O5 ha-1 is appropriate for maximum tef production in Sekota and Lasta districts of Amhara region. Further research and extension services should focus on promoting the adoption of these optimized fertilizer practices among smallholder farmers to maximize the sustainable production of tef.

Impacts of the changing climate on agricultural productivity and food security: Evidence from Ethiopia

This study investigates the influence of climate change on agriculture productivity and food security in Ethiopia. We use 2011–2020 state level data set for four major seasonal crops of Cash and Food in Ethiopia, namely, barley, wheat, maize, and sorghum. Methodologically, we apply the productivity function and the Ricardian approaches in the modelling for simulating the association of climate change with agriculture productivity. This study documents the interconnectedness among changes in climate, security of food and agriculture, indicating how the prior changes bring the latter kind of alterations. In general, agriculture in Ethiopia is prone to changes in climate and variations in the levels of precipitation, posing threats to food security of the rural population. The specific findings of this study highlight sorghum and barley as the majorly impacted stable crops as a consequence of changes in meteorology. Furthermore, the study reports that barley production in particular makes vital contribution to causing food insecurity in Ethiopia. The study recommends some policy prescriptions and adaptation methods for mitigating the detrimental effects of climate change on agricultural production and food security in Ethiopia and similar agro-based economies at large.

Participatory Demonstration and Evaluation of Bread Wheat and Teff Technologies: The Case of Urban Agriculture at Akaki Kaliti Sub-City in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

The agriculture sector plays a significant role as the primary source of food and income for the farmers in Ethiopia. This study was conducted in three districts of the Akaki Kaliti sub-city of Addis Ababa city in the 2021/22 production year. Urban agriculture is the agricultural production in cities and the areas near cities for food and other purposes. In this demonstration activity, a total of 61 (47 male and 14 female) headed farmers benefited and a total of 14 hectares of bread wheat and 30 hectares of land were covered by teff. From the demonstrated technologies average grain yield of 56.66 qt/ha of bread wheat was produced and mean grain yield of 22.16 qt/ha was obtained from teff which is higher than the national average. Hence, to boost agricultural production the dissemination and adoption of improved crop varieties with full production packages requires the attention of stakeholders engaged in the agricultural sectors to use cluster farming to elevate poverty and ensure food security.

Vegetables Production and Management Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities by Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia

The production of vegetables is very important to Ethiopia's economy and various types of vegetables can grow in Ethiopia. However, despite the existing potentials, smallholder vegetable farms are based on low input–low output production system in the country. The production is run by smallholder farmers and is located on a relatively small part of land. In the same way, there is inadequate knowledge on improved vegetables production practices, challenges and opportunities by smallholder farmers in the country and public research on vegetable crops was negligible. To this end, this review was aimed to assess practices of vegetable production and management, challenges of vegetable production and management and opportunity of vegetable production by small holder farming household. The review found that, vegetable production practices and management are not the primary activity for the majority of smallholder farming households in the country; rather, they are seen as a supplement to the production of major crops. It was mainly based on traditional farming system. Further the review found out that, lack of access to credit, limited supply of improved seed, marketing and market information, appropriate management techniques, appropriate disease and insect pest control measures, outbreak of new disease and pest are among the main challenges of vegetable production in the country. This is mainly because of the limited resource allocation to research and development including the extension services. Finally, the review recommends that, in promoting vegetable producer households, diversified and intensified agricultural farming, and problems related to extension service and research, credit service, disease and pest control, market and marketing information, and provision of modern agricultural inputs should be addressed by concerned bodies.

Occurrence and Levels of Mycotoxins in On-Farm-Stored Sesame in Major Growing Districts of Ethiopia

Mycotoxins in sesame seeds pose a significant risk to both food safety and Ethiopia’s economy. The purpose of this study was to determine the presence and concentrations of mycotoxins in sesame seeds kept on farms in Ethiopia’s key sesame-producing areas. Purposive sampling was used to obtain 470 sesame seed samples from farmers′ storage facilities in five important districts. Total aflatoxin (AFT), ochratoxin A (OTA), total fumonisin (FUM), and deoxynivalenol (DON) were identified using both a lateral flow reader and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The analysis revealed that all samples contained mycotoxins to varying degrees, with AFT and DON being particularly common. AFT levels varied between 2.5 and 27.8 parts per billion (μg/kg), averaging 13.8 μg/kg, while OTA concentrations were between 5.0 and 9.7 μg/kg, averaging 7.1 μg/kg. Total fumonisin levels spanned from 300 to 1300 μg/kg, averaging 800 μg/kg. DON was found in the range of 560 to 700 μg/kg. Notably, 96.8% of the samples fell within the safe range for AFT, FUM, and DON mean levels as defined by the Federal Drug Administration’s maximum limits. The co-occurrence rates of AFT-OTA, DON-OTA, AFT-FUM, FUM-DON, and FUM-OTA were observed at 44.0%, 38.3%, 33.8%, 30.2%, 29.8%, and 26.0%, respectively. Around 37.2% of the samples showed signs of fungal infection, and seed germination rates varied between 66.8% and 91.1%. The Limmu district exhibited higher total aflatoxin levels, greater kernel infection, and reduced germination rates compared to other districts. The Wollega sesame variety was more susceptible to kernel infection, had higher total aflatoxin levels, and lower germination rates compared to other varieties. Additionally, the age of the grain significantly affected (p &lt; 0.05) both kernel infection and germination. Current storage practices in Ethiopia’s primary sesame-growing districts are conducive to the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi. Given the public health implications of mycotoxin levels in sesame, it is imperative for stakeholders to collaborate in identifying and implementing secure and effective storage solutions to preserve both the quantity and quality of sesame at the smallholder farmer level. This study underscores the necessity for improved storage technologies to safeguard sesame quality and diminish the risk of mycotoxin contamination.

From climate perceptions to actions: A case study on coffee farms in Ethiopia.

Increasing temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns have major consequences for smallholder farmers, especially in the Global South. Our study examined spatial patterns and climatic drivers of farmers' perceptions of climate change, and how these perceptions translated into adaptation actions. We interviewed 56 farmers in southwestern Ethiopia and analyzed ERA5-Land reanalysis climate data from 1971 to 2020. The majority of farmers perceived the recorded temperature increase as well as a decrease and shift in the timing of rainfall. Perceived climate change varied with local climate factors and not with the rate of climate change itself. Farmers' adaptation practices showed associations with local temperature, but not with farmers' perceptions of climate change. Our findings highlight that even if farmers perceive climate change, perceptions are most common in areas where climate action is already urgent, and perceptions may not translate into adaptation. Thus, targeted and timely information and extension programs are crucial.

Determinants of Smallholder Farmer Maize Production Efficiency in Western Parts of Oromia in Boneya Boshe woreda, East Wollega Zone: Evidence under Shifting Cultivation Area

Farming in Ethiopia can offer assistance in bringing dejected needs. Hence, the best possible means of achieving growth is by increasing the production efficiency of farmers. To estimate the levels of production efficiency, this study specifically used only data from farmers who are producing without plowing by oxen and without using fertilizers in the study area under shifting cultivation. Method: To determine the determinants of production efficiency, the Tobit model was used in this study. Result. The Tobit model results show that age of household, and herbicide use had a negative impact on the production efficiency of farmers. Regarding the positive determinants of production efficiency, labor, seed, and fertilizer (NPS) have a positive influence. Conclusion and Recommendation: The farmers in the study area are efficient in the production of maize. The government should give due attention to farmers' training by strengthening farmers' education and farmer training centers to make farmers more efficient producers and profitable by integrating local and traditional knowledge of farmers with formal knowledge of using herbicides. Farmers should also be advised, as they are youngest farmers engaging in farming work. Otherwise, the government should supply fertilizer and improve seed on credit.

Vegetables Production and Management Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities by Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia

The production of vegetables is very important to Ethiopia's economy and various types of vegetables can grow in Ethiopia. However, despite the existing potentials, smallholder vegetable farms are based on low input–low output production system in the country. The production is run by smallholder farmers and is located on a relatively small part of land. In the same way, there is inadequate knowledge on improved vegetables production practices, challenges and opportunities by smallholder farmers in the country and public research on vegetable crops was negligible. To this end, this review was aimed to assess practices of vegetable production and management, challenges of vegetable production and management and opportunity of vegetable production by small holder farming household. The review found that, vegetable production practices and management are not the primary activity for the majority of smallholder farming households in the country; rather, they are seen as a supplement to the production of major crops. It was mainly based on traditional farming system. Further the review found out that, lack of access to credit, limited supply of improved seed, marketing and market information, appropriate management techniques, appropriate disease and insect pest control measures, outbreak of new disease and pest are among the main challenges of vegetable production in the country. This is mainly because of the limited resource allocation to research and development including the extension services. Finally, the review recommends that, in promoting vegetable producer households, diversified and intensified agricultural farming, and problems related to extension service and research, credit service, disease and pest control, market and marketing information, and provision of modern agricultural inputs should be addressed by concerned bodies.

Vegetables Production and Management Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities by Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia

The production of vegetables is very important to Ethiopia's economy and various types of vegetables can grow in Ethiopia. However, despite the existing potentials, smallholder vegetable farms are based on low input–low output production system in the country. The production is run by smallholder farmers and is located on a relatively small part of land. In the same way, there is inadequate knowledge on improved vegetables production practices, challenges and opportunities by smallholder farmers in the country and public research on vegetable crops was negligible. To this end, this review was aimed to assess practices of vegetable production and management, challenges of vegetable production and management and opportunity of vegetable production by small holder farming household. The review found that, vegetable production practices and management are not the primary activity for the majority of smallholder farming households in the country; rather, they are seen as a supplement to the production of major crops. It was mainly based on traditional farming system. Further the review found out that, lack of access to credit, limited supply of improved seed, marketing and market information, appropriate management techniques, appropriate disease and insect pest control measures, outbreak of new disease and pest are among the main challenges of vegetable production in the country. This is mainly because of the limited resource allocation to research and development including the extension services. Finally, the review recommends that, in promoting vegetable producer households, diversified and intensified agricultural farming, and problems related to extension service and research, credit service, disease and pest control, market and marketing information, and provision of modern agricultural inputs should be addressed by concerned bodies.

Assessment of the Constraints and Challenges in Avocado (Persea Americana Mill.) Production and Marketing in Southern Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The avocado fruit is very popular and highly cultivated in many countries, including Ethiopia, for its multiple benefits. The purpose of this study was to examine the major constraints and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in avocado production and marketing in southern Ethiopia. The data were collected from 295 avocado farmers and 30 local traders using various data collection tools. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the chi-square test. The findings from the present study revealed that the proportion of men farmers who produce local avocados was significantly higher than that of women farmers (χ2 = 153.79, df = 1, p < 0.001). On the other hand, women dominated the local markets, accounting for 73.3% of the local avocado traders who were interviewed. In addition, our research has demonstrated that smallholder farmers encounter major difficulties and challenges when growing avocados, including poor fruit retention, inadequate knowledge on agronomic practices, issues with diseases, and pests. Approximately 20.4% of farmers were able to solve at least one of the documented challenges in this study. As a result, it is critical that these concerns be addressed at the national, regional, district, and neighborhood levels to increase the standard of living for Ethiopian farmers who grow this essential crop.

Impact of cluster farming on smallholder farmers teff commercialization in Ethiopia

BackgroundCluster farming is an agricultural practice that involves organizing and grouping together farmers within a specific geographic area based on proximity of their farm plots to create synergies and economies of scale. In developing countries including Ethiopia cluster farming has gained prominence as a strategic initiative to foster commercialized agriculture and enhance the livelihoods of smallholder farmers by integrating their production within the broader value chain. In light of this, the government of Ethiopia plans to promote cluster farming throughout the country based on the best practices of the four cluster farming priority regions and 10 high-value commodities. Teff is one of the high-value commodities in the cluster farming priority regions. However, the impact of cluster farming on teff commercialization was not studied before.MethodsWe conducted this study to examine the impact of cluster farming on teff commercialization using nationally representative data collected by Agricultural Transformation Institute of Ethiopia. Then, we analyzed the data using descriptive and inferential statistics, commercialization index, and endogenous switching regression model.ResultsThe result revealed that the mean teff commercialization of cluster farming participants was higher than non-participants in all the cluster farming priority regions of Ethiopia. Similarly, the model result indicated that cluster farming had a positive and significant impact on teff commercialization at p < 0.01.ConclusionThe findings suggest that the promotion of cluster farming facilitates teff commercialization in Ethiopia. However, we recommend further studies using panel data collected from large samples to provide a longitudinal perspective on the impact of cluster farming on teff commercialization over time. The findings of these studies can offer comprehensive insights and concrete information that can inform policymakers to support and promote teff cluster farming in Ethiopia.

The Ageing Crisis Threatening Farming in Ethiopia: An Analysis of Youth Involvement in Agriculture

This study examined youth labor force participation in agriculture and factors impeding effective participation in Ethiopia using the 2011-2018 data from the Living Standards Measurement Survey-Integrated Survey of Agriculture (LSMS-ISA). The analytical tools included both descriptive statistics and econometric analysis. Summary statistics show that the average age of the respondents was 47 years, thus they are not at an economically active age. This is an upward trend of 52 years in 2018 compared to 44 years in 2011. The ordinary least square (OLS) regression result indicated that for every 1 unit increase in the independent variable (time), there will be a 1.01 increase in the dependent variable (farm age). The result showed that the increase in time affected age of the farming positively and significantly. The evidence suggested farming population in Ethiopia is growing older and reduced involvement of youth (14.4%). The results also revealed low participation of youth in agriculture activities which increases youth unemployment. In turn, the total dependency ratio in the population equals 102.7. This high dependency ratio means that the ‘dependents’ in society are more reliant on a smaller number of working-aged people, which suggests that for every 1027 dependents, there are roughly 1000 working-age people providing them food through farming. The review result showed youth participation in Ethiopian agriculture is influenced by limited access to land, low attitude on agriculture (attitudinal problems), inadequate access to financial services, problems of rural life, and backwardness of agricultural tools. The study suggests that efforts to shape future work in Ethiopian agriculture should include among other things, access to land and provision of credit facilities. The study pointed out that the efforts to shape the future of agricultural work in Ethiopia should ensure the availability of land and credit.

Productivity and efficiency heterogeneity among maize smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

Productivity and efficiency heterogeneity among maize smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

Review on Determinants and Challenges of Household Food Security in Ethiopia

The issue of food security is a major concern and a top priority area for Ethiopia. Food security is a relative term that refers to the fact that all people have access to enough food to enable them to live an active, productive, and healthy life. Households are considered to be food secure when they produce enough staple food to meet their daily needs or when they have sufficient income to purchase food from the market. Like many developing countries, the highland farmers in Ethiopia mainly rely on subsistence agriculture and are often affected by food insecurity. The main objective of the paper is to review the determinants of households’ food security in Ethiopia.

Revitalizing Key Conditions and Integrated Watershed Management to Mitigate Land Degradation and Sustain Water Availability for Agriculture in Semi-Arid Regions: A Case Study of Ethiopia

Land, the source of 97% of global food, remains threatened by progressive soil erosion-induced land degradation, such as, in the semi-arid regions. To address this problem, soil and water conservation interventions have been implemented in watersheds across Ethiopia. Despite witnessing successful and positive impacts in some watersheds, the broader promotion of watershed-based interventions faces obstacles. Soil and water deteriorations persist in many of the watersheds in Ethiopia, leading to water shortages and related challenges in sustaining agriculture. The objectives of this research are thus to i) identify the main challenges and constraints hindering the promotion of watershed-based interventions in Ethiopia, and ii) identify key conditions for revitalizing the Integrated Watershed Management (IWSM) approach to mitigate soil erosion-induced land degradation, rehabilitate and sustainably manage watershed resources. A systematic review of over 60 published articles, extracted from the internet database using various search engines such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Academia.edu, and ResearchGate, was conducted. Additionally, valuable comments from 65 peer-reviewers worldwide were collected through the Qeios platform during a posting period for more than two months, and these comments were utilized to update the first preprint version of this article. Based on the review, identified challenges and limitations include poor institutional support, lack of participation, inadequate planning of soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies, absence of research and development linkages, and insufficient capacity building. To address these challenges and limitations, recommendations for revitalizing the integrated watershed management (IWSM) approach and key conditions are discussed. The identified key conditions for revitalizing watershed-based interventions in Ethiopia include: i) ensuring institutional support and community participation, ii) strengthening the watershed-based intervention, and iii) establishing a watershed-based platform for scientific tools, research-based innovation, and capacity building to sustain water availability for agriculture in Ethiopia, serving as an experience for other semi-arid regions.