FAO Data Research Articles

New elasticities and projections of global demand for coniferous sawnwood

Coniferous sawnwood is the most important solid wood product in terms of its production volume and economic significance. It also plays a vital role in the forestry-forest industry value chain. We estimated price- and income elasticities for per capita softwood sawnwood consumption based on FAO data. Varying demand patterns are found across the regions. Only the countries with little supply from their own domestic sources had significant price elasticities of demand, relatively inelastic in the short-term, but more elastic in the long-term. They also tended to have the highest income elasticities. The elasticity estimates obtained for the panels of very low- or very high-income countries were not statistically significant.The potential for demand growth for coniferous sawnwood was assessed under five SSP (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) scenarios. The demand increase varies a lot from 88 to 154 Mm3 from 2015 to 2030 but demonstrates that the market growth can provide solid support for bioeconomy formation in the terms of economic income, carbon storage and substitution possibilities, and supply of by-products to other traditional or emerging products.

The Politics of Rice Production in Nigeria-Can Nigeria Become Net Exporter or Will Remained Net Importer?

Of recent, the government of Nigeria has been keen in changing the narrative of rice production viz. striving to make the country self-sufficient in rice production. To achieve this, various efforts viz. import ban, credit support programmes etc were embarked upon to boost domestic production in order to meet its demand and possibly engage in exportation soonest. It is in view of this that this research was conceptualized to see whether this goal is feasible or the country would remain a net importer. Time series data which spanned for a period of 58 years (1961-2018) and covered production, area, yield and producer prices were used. The data source was FAO data bank and the collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The empirical evidence showed that growth rate in the production of rice through the economic reform periods was driven majorly by area expansion with technological effect been marginal. In addition, the current acreage allocation was governed by price, area and institutional factors. Furthermore, rice production has been marked by virulent instability across all the reform periods, thus the country’s rice production has not been in the comfort zone. In addition, the empirical evidence showed area risk and uncertainty-climate change to be the major factors responsible for production variability across the reform periods. Besides, area effect predominates in determining the production growth of rice throughout the economic periods. The future food security of rice in the decade ahead is not promising given that the production trend of rice would be fluctuating, thus a threat to the country’s economic viz. rice food security and foreign reserve. Therefore, realistic and holistic policies are needed to change the future narrative of the country’s rice food security; otherwise the country will remained a net importer.

Development of organic poultry farming based on environmental engineering

In modern market conditions, the issues of the need to expand the market potential of the poultry industry through the production of organic products that balance the ecosystem and human needs for natural food are increasingly discussed. Today, the main focus is on getting the maximum profit at the lowest cost. This goal is achieved due to the intensity of growth and development of a biological object through the use of antibiotics, growth stimulants and preservatives, as well as other animal protection products, which are integrated as manufactured products and the translation of these negative factors through the body of the bird to humans. This is confirmed by the results of studies conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on the lack of vitamins, minerals, trace elements in the production of products based on intensive technologies. They call this situation “hidden hunger”, which leads to nutritional deficiencies, that is, a state where the quality of the food consumed does not meet the needs of a person. According to FAO data, about 2 billion people in the world experience “hidden hunger”. This situation gradually leads people to comprehend the need to return to natural, natural standards of farming. Organic poultry farming is one of the manifestations of this process. The idea of sustainable development of any industrial enterprise that can simultaneously reduce the harmful impact on the environment and increase the efficiency of technological processes is allowed by environmental engineering, which is an approach of technological and engineering origin, aimed at improving and maintaining conditions for maintaining anthropomorphic safety, preserving useful ecosystems and improvements. environment-related living conditions of people. With regard to the production of organic poultry products, environmental engineering is intended to study and design specialized modules at all stages of the life cycle of this technology, close to the natural habitat of the poultry population.

COMPETITIVENESS OF EXPORT AGRO PRODUCTS AND ECONOMIC POLICY FOR INCREASINGTHE COMPETITIVENESS

Agriculture plays a major role in ensuring the country›s food security, improving the balance of payments and strengthening state independence. Increasing the production of agricultural products increases the national income of the country, creates additional jobs and more. Competitive export production should play a major role in boosting agricultural production, as it has to be competitive in the international markets.The article analyzes the competitiveness of Georgian export agro products and the export-import of agro products. It should be noted that imports of primary agricultural products over the years have significantly outstripped exports, mainly due to the low volume of production of these products and the weak competitiveness of the sector relative to foreign producers. Competitiveness should be enhanced not by imposing barriers on imports, but by enhancing the competitiveness of locally produced products. That is why has been studied the main directions of economic policy for increasing the competitiveness by the example of Israel. Israel uses the theory and principles of knowledge-based economics to increase the innovation potential of the economy and enhance its competitiveness in general. In this study export agro products are identified by the following parameters: tendencies in export, stock reserves at the end of the year, resources, local production, average yield and self-provision coefficients. Thus, we assessed the competitiveness of corn/wine, nuts, potatoes, vegetables, wheat. Competitiveness level is calculated for selected Georgian agro products based on the received FAO data. The level of competitiveness of agro-food products was compared with each other on two markets: The European Union market (EU market) and the Commonwealth of Independent States market (CIS market). The product›s competitiveness level is calculated using the following indexes: Relative Export Advantage Index (RXA), Relative Import Penetration Index (RMP) and Relative Trade Advantage Index (RTA).The paper concludes that a high level of competitiveness in the international trade from Georgian agro products has nuts and wine. In addition, it is interesting that on CIS markets Georgian agro-food products have higher competitiveness than on the EU market. Also, on CIS markets competitive are potatoes and vegetables. Data analysis has shown that Georgian wine has far higher competitiveness on the CIS market than on the EU market. In recent years, the volume of Georgian wine exports to Russia has increased, which has been reflected in competitiveness indices. Consequently, the competitiveness of Georgian wine is increasing in the CIS market, while maintaining relative stability in the EU market. Also, Georgian nuts has far higher competitiveness on the EU market than on the CIS market. Conclusions are made according to the identified problems and the recommendations are offered on the directions of economic policies for increasing the competitiveness of agro-food products. It is important to identify agro-food products on the threshold of competitiveness in international trade in order to concentrate further resources and efforts on them, which will increase export volumes in the future. It is advisable to create a stable regulatory environment and increase the awareness of the Georgian agro-food product in international level.

Perceptions and Preconceptions about Chicken and Pork Meat: A Qualitative Exploratory Study of Argentine Consumers in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires

In the past, the Argentine livestock production system was based on the extensive breeding that used pastures. However, technological progress and the use of land for soybean production are leading to a strong intensification of beef production, with a negative impact on the environment. According to FAO data, Argentina has the third highest meat consumption in the world, half of which is beef. A change in diet is a long and difficult process. The first step in favor of the environment could be the replacement of beef with other types of meat that have a lower impact on the environment, such as chicken and pork. The purpose of this study is to understand the causes limiting the preference for these alternatives and to identify useful tools to encourage their consumption. The results show that the interviewed Argentine consumers in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires have preconceptions about these two types of meat, such as the fact that hormones are still used in the chicken production system, that pork has higher cholesterol content than other meats, and that it carries diseases. These products are instead appreciated for their practicality of use, especially when purchased in portions, and they are not only tasty but also cheap.

International trade and the stability of food supplies in the Global South

Many countries in the Global South depend increasingly on imports to provide food for their rising populations. Trade is a key mechanism to address distributional issues, especially in countries with limited biophysical resources. In theory, by pooling the risk of crop failures via global trade, trade should stabilize food supplies. In practice, however, an over-reliance on imported food may be detrimental to domestic food stability. Here, we disentangle the role of imports from that of domestic production in countries in the Global South for three staple crops: maize, rice, and wheat. First, we use FAO data to differentiate between exposure to production variance in exporting countries, domestic production variance, and total supply variance. Next, we analyze trade relationships and assess the biophysical capacities of countries to investigate why some countries have more unstable supplies than others. We find that food imports have been a source of food supply instability—in particular for maize in Southern Africa, wheat in Central Asia, and rice more generally. But the reason that imports lead to instability is not the same across regions or crops and imports are at times necessary due to limited available water and land resources. Furthermore, the source of imports may be important in the case of co-occurring crop failures in both importing and exporting countries, or exporters with high export variance. Finally, we find that the increasing prevalence of global trade from 1985–2010 has increased exposure to food supply variance in some regions, although it has not increased exposure to supply variance in all regions. These results provide guidance for future analyses to focus on regions that are vulnerable to imported food supply disruptions of important staple crops, and inform debates about the risks associated with food trade in the Global South.

Projecting global and regional outlooks for planted forests under the shared socio-economic pathways

There is rising global interest in growing more trees in order to meet growing population, climate change, and wood energy needs. Using recently published data on planted forests by country, we estimated relationships between per capita income and planted forest area that are useful for understanding prospective planted forest area futures through 2100 under various United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-inspired Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs). Under all SSPs, projections indicate increasing global planted forest area trends for the next three to four decades and declining trends thereafter, commensurate with the quadratic functions employed. Our projections indicate somewhat less total future planted forest area than prior linear forecasts. Compared to 293 million ha (Mha) of planted forests globally in 2015, SSP5 (a vision of a wealthier world) projects the largest increase (to 334 Mha, a 14% gain) by 2055, followed by SSP2 (a continuation of historical socio-economic trends, to 327 Mha, or an 11% gain), and SSP3 (a vision of a poorer world, to 319 Mha, a 9% gain). The projected trends for major world regions differ from global trends, consistent with differing socio-economic development trajectories in those regions. Our projections based on empirical FAO data for the past 25 years, as well as those by other researchers, suggest that achieving the much more ambitious global planted forest targets proposed recently will require exceptional forest land and investment supply shifts.

A worldwide analysis of trend in crop yields and yield variability: Evidence from FAO data

The trend in crop yields and yield variability affects food security and impact agricultural and food policies. Recent studies in this area have either focused only on one country or performed global analysis on a handful of crops. We provide the first worldwide analysis of trend and variability for 8088 country-crop yield series taken from the FAO database, employing a robust estimator to cope with the adverse statistical effects of outliers. More than half of the series display a slowdown in yield growth due to a closing of the gap between realised and attainable yields as well as to agricultural policies promoting more sustainable agricultural practices. Around one fourth of the series show also an increase in yield variability as a consequence of climate change and changes in farm management practices. Yield variability is highest in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Middle East and North Africa, where food security may be threatened.

Türkiye‘de Süt Sığırcılığı Sektöründeki Gelişmelerin Analizi

Kırsal alanda faaliyet gösteren ve tarımla ilgilenen işletmelerin gelirini ve karlılığını artırmada hayvancılık sektörü özel bir öneme bir öneme sahiptir. Çünkü hayvansal üretim faaliyetleri tarım işletmelerinde; üretilen ürünlerin değerlendirilmesine, işgücünün dengeli bir şekilde kullanılmasına, işletmenin nakit ihtiyacının yıl içinde sürekli bir şekilde karşılanmasında ve riskin dağıtılmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. 2017 yılı FAO verilerine göre Türkiye, dünya sığır varlığının %0,99‘u ve inek sütü üretiminde ise %2,78‘lik bir kısmına sahiptir. TÜİK verilerine göre 2004-2018 döneminde sığır varlığı yıllık %4,62 artışla 17.042.506 baş, inek sütü üretimi ise yıllık %7,23‘lük artışla 20.036.877 ton düzeyine ulaşmıştır. Belirtilen dönemde süt üretimindeki artışta kültür ırkı sığırların payı %33,63‘ten %61,39 düzeyine yükselmiştir. Ancak dünya genelinde süt ineklerinin verim değerleri sıralandığında Türkiye 57.sırada yer aldığı görülmektedir. Türkiye‘de süt ineği varlığının %21,74‘ü, inek sütü üretiminin de %22,77‘si Konya, İzmir, Erzurum, Balıkesir ve Diyarbakır illerinde gerçekleşmiştir. Türkiye‘de tarımsal üretimin artırılmasına yönelik olarak Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı tarafından 2018 yılında verilen 14,5 milyar TL desteğin %25,79‘u hayvancılık sektörüne aittir. Çalışmada elde edilen veriler süt sığırcılığına yönelik faaliyetlerin doğrudan ya da dolaylı olarak; bölgelerarası gelişmişlik farkının azaltılması ve kısal alanda faaliyet gösteren işletmelerin gelirlerinin artırılmasında önemli bir sektör olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

Using agricultural residues for sustainable transportation biofuels in 2050: Case of West Africa

This article focuses on the use of biomass to produce transportation fuels such as synthetic natural gas, bioethanol and electricity under a sustainable scenario in West Africa in 2050. The aim of this work was to evaluate the feasibility of producing such biofuels using agricultural residues as feedstock in the studied area. The potential of biomass from ten agricultural residues was estimated in R environment using FAO data. Options were analyzed in order to generate portfolios of transportation fuels based on energy indicators, biomass availability and scenarios of technological progress. The optimal allocation varied from one country to the other, showing a fair tradeoff between the objective functions.

The Phenotype Variability, of the Racka Sheep in the Republic of Serbia

The intensification of sheep production, by permanent genetic selection and the development of breeding technology, has led to the creation of highly productive sheep breeds. In this way, many highly productive breeds were created which could demonstrate their high production potentials only under perfect conditions of nutrition, accommodation and care. Preservation of indigenous breeds is of great importance in order to protect and safeguard those breeds and, in this way, it is possible to restore some of the characteristics that are lost during intensive selection, which are mostly related to resistance. The Racka sheep (Serbian: Vitoroga žuja) is considered to be an autochthonous breed and a genetic resource in the Republic of Serbia. As a primitive breed with low productivity, it offers no economic profitability and, thus, there is no great interest in its breeding. According to the FAO data from 2008-2014, the number of these sheep ranges from 500 to 1000. The objective of this study was to determine the phenotypic variability and to assess the external measurements of the Racka sheep. One-hundred fifty Racka breed ewes were included in this study. The effects of three farms on the phenotypic characteristics and their body indexes were calculated. The significance of the research is reflected in the advancement of this breed and in the assessment of the possibilities of selection work in these herds.

STATE AND TRENDS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETITIVE SHEEP BREEDING IN UKRAINE

The article analyzes and summarizes data of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine for 2019 and on October 1st, 2020, information from the FAO and literature sources on sheep breeding development. The research results show that lamb and goat production increased by 33.3% at agricultural enterprises in 2019. Whole meat production decreased by 2.79% during the study period in farms of all categories. The regions that obtain the most significant wool quantity are Odesa (637 tons), Zakarpattia (159 tons), and Mykolayiv (99 tons). Wool production decreased significantly in Vinnytsia and Kirovohrad (by 50%), Kyiv (by 28.6%), and Kherson (by 25.3%) regions. In January-September 2020, entire wool production decreased by 12.5% in farms of all ownership forms compared to the previous year. In 2019 wool clip per sheep decreased by 3.7% and was in the range of 0.2-3.9 kg (average 2.6 kg). According to this indicator, the first place in Ukraine takes the Kherson region (3.9 kg), the second – Nikolaev (3.7 kg), and the third – Odesa (3.4 kg). In 2018, Ukrainian enterprises produced 18,1 thousand tonnes of sheep's milk (according to FAO data), which exceeds the previous year by 6,63%. The decrease in lamb and wool production is due to a decrease in sheep stock's total number in farms of all ownership forms. In 2019 the number decreased by 5.68%, including – 7.94% in agricultural enterprises and 4.94% – in households (the difference with data on January 1st, 2020. and 2019). Ukraine established separate high-tech modular-type farms in the meat-wool (Lviv region) and meat (Dnipropetrovsk region) areas of productivity, also farms for the production and in-depth processing of sheep's milk into soft and hard delicatessen cheeses and butter (Khmelnitsky, Chernivtsi and Kyiv regions).

International crop trade networks: the impact of shocks and cascades

Analyzing available FAO data from 176 countries over 21 years, we observe an increase of complexity in the international trade of maize, rice, soy, and wheat. A larger number of countries play a role as producers or intermediaries, either for trade or food processing. In consequence, we find that the trade networks become more prone to failure cascades caused by exogenous shocks. In our model, countries compensate for demand deficits by imposing export restrictions. To capture these, we construct higher-order trade dependency networks for the different crops and years. These networks reveal hidden dependencies between countries and provide an estimate of necessary stock reserves to protect countries from cascading export restrictions. They differ substantially from first-order networks that do not take cascading effects into account. We find rice trade most prone to cascading export restrictions. A great number of Asian and African countries are most exposed to cascades. Noticeably, the main suppliers are similar for most of the crops: USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, and India. While shocks in the USA mainly affect South America and several Asian countries, the south of Africa is primarily dependent on American and Asian exporters. The north of Africa depends strongly on Europe, in particular via wheat imports.

Türkiye’de Kiraz Üretiminin Yapısal Analizi

Bu çalışmada, Dünya’da ve Türkiye’de kiraz üretiminin
 mevcut durumu incelenmiş ve Türkiye’de kiraz sektörünün SWOT analizi
 yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın temel materyalini ilgili istatistikler ve yapılmış
 olan bilimsel çalışmalar oluşturmuştur. 2017 yılı FAO verilerine göre Dünya’da
 yaklaşık 416.445 hektar alanda kiraz üretimi yapılmakta ve 85.401 hektar alan
 ve 627.132 tonluk üretim ile Türkiye dünyada kiraz üretiminde ilk sırada yer
 almaktadır. Üretim bakımından ilk sırada olmasına rağmen pazarlama stratejilerinin
 etkin ve yeterli olmamasından dolayı kiraz ihracatında Türkiye, Şili ve ABD’den
 sonra üçüncü sırada yer almaktadır. Türkiye’nin ağırlıklı olarak kiraz ihracatı
 yaptığı ülkeler, Avrupa Birliği ülkeleri (Başta Almanya, Bulgaristan ve
 Hollanda olmak üzere), Rusya ve Irak’tır. Dünya kiraz ithalatında ilk sırada
 %21 oranıyla Çin, ikinci sırada ise %19’luk oranı ile Rusya gelmektedir.
 Türkiye’de ağaç başına kiraz verimi 2017 yılında 29 kg olarak gerçekleşmiştir.
 Türkiye’de 2018 yılı verilerine göre kiraz üretimi bakımından, Konya ili ilk
 sırada yer almıştır. Konya ilinde 70.987 da alanda, 68.376 ton kiraz üretimi
 yapılmış olup, bu miktar toplam kiraz üretiminin %10,87’sini oluşturmaktadır.
 Üretim bakımından ikinci sırada İzmir ili gelmektedir. Türkiye’de kiraz
 sektörünün yapılan SWOT analizinde, Türkiye’nin sahip olduğu ekolojik çeşitlilik
 ve uygunluk avantaj oluştururken, işletmelerin yapısal sorunları ve üretici
 örgütlenmesinin yetersiz olması dezavantaj oluşturmaktadır. Diğer taraftan
 Türkiye’nin Avrupa Birliği ve Rusya gibi ithalatı yüksek ülkelere yakın ve iş birliği
 içinde olması fırsat oluştururken, yaşanan iklim değişikliğine bağlı üretim ve
 fiyat istikrarsızlığı önemli riskler oluşturmaktadır. İhracat olanaklarını artırabilmek için üretici örgütlenmesi ve üretici
 örgütlerinin etkinliğini artırmak, kiraz üretim tekniklerinin bilimsel esaslara
 göre yürütülmesi, uluslararası piyasalarda tat ve aroma bakımından tercih
 edilen kiraz çeşitlerinin yaygınlaştırılması gerekmektedir. 

International beeswax trade facilitates small hive beetle invasions

International trade can facilitate biological invasions, but the possible role of beeswax trade for small hive beetles (SHBs), Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is poorly understood. SHBs are parasites of social bee colonies native to sub-Saharan Africa and have become an invasive species. Since 1996, SHBs have established in all continents except Antarctica. Here, we combine mitochondrial DNA analyses (COI gene, N = 296 SHBs, 98 locations) with previously published beeswax trade data (FAO) for 12 confirmed SHB invasions. Our genetic data confirm previous findings and suggest novel SHB African origins. In nine out of 12 invasion cases, the genetic and beeswax trade data match. When excluding one confirmed pathway (bee imports) and two cases, for which no FAO data were available, the genetics and beeswax trade data consistently predict the same source. This strongly suggests that beeswax imports from Ethiopia, South Africa, Tanzania and the USA, respectively, have mainly been responsible for the past invasion success of this beetle species. Adequate mitigation measures should be applied to limit this key role of beeswax imports for the further spread of SHBs. Combining genetics with trade data appears to be a powerful tool to better understand and eventually mitigate biological invasions.

Factors influencing international beer trade

Beer has been presenting in human life for a long time. The oldest written proof of beer production, the “Monument Bleu”, comes from Mesopotamia, the 3rd millennium BC and by this time brewing was regulated by law (Ulischberger, 1982). Nowadays, globalization liberates the markets and large brewing companies achieve tremendous growth. In 2016, trade value of beer made from malt was 13,8 billion USD, according to the UNComtrade (2019) data. The main exporter was Mexico with 27% share in total beer export, followed by three EU beer producers: Netherlands, Belgium and Germany with shares of 14%, 11% and 9%, respectively. On the other side, beer import was even more concentrated: the USA represented 35% of global beer import, followed by France and the United Kingdom (5-5%), China (4.5%) and Italy (4.3%). In case of beer, domestic consumption largely determines the industry, because the largest producers are not the top exporters. Based on FAO (2019) data, in 2014, 28% of global beer production was brewed in China, followed by the USA (the biggest importer - 13%), and 8% was produced in Brazil. Germany and Mexico, the two main exporters, only had 5-5% of market shares in terms of global beer production.
 In our study we measured competitiveness using the index of Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA), calculated for all countries exporting beer in the period of 1988-2017. In order to identify factors influencing SRCA, we applied panel-data linear models by using feasible generalized least squares (FGLS). We used the following independent variables for the model: barley production, FDI (foreign direct investment) levels, population, per capita GDP, per capita beer consumption, beer export unit value, number of beers with geographical indications, EU membership (as a dummy variable) and beer production.

Análisis comparativo del diferencial de precios agrarios entre productores y consumidores en europa, bajo criterios de seguridad alimentaria de abastecimiento

La seguridad alimentaria es considerada como un factor muy relevante en nuestro tiempo. La visión de este tema es distinta según se analice en países desarrollados o en vías de desarrollo. Ante el problema del hambre, el precio de los alimentos resulta un aspecto clave. Por este motivo, partiendo de datos de la FAO, se han realizado diversos análisis como CHAID o de clústers para ver cómo ha evolucionado el diferencial de precios alimentarios entre productores y consumidores en Europa a nivel de países en comparación con la evolución de los indicadores de seguridad alimentaria. Como conclusión, se perciben diferencias al comparar los países del Este y los occidentales, con mejoras en seguridad alimentaria y una reducción en los márgenes alimentarios, lo que supone una ayuda en la lucha contra el hambre.

Analiza rynku owoców jagodowych – wybrane elementy

Celem pracy była identyfikacja zmian zachodzących na rynku owoców jagodowych w Polsce oraz w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej, w latach 2006-2017. W opracowaniu dostępnych danych i prezentacji wyników badań wykorzystano metody opisowe i porównawcze. W publikacji wykorzystano dane GUS oraz FAO, dotyczące powierzchni upraw, wielkości produkcji i spożycia owoców, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem owoców jagodowych, na świecie i wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej oraz w Polsce. Analizą objęto lata 2006–2017 dla Polski w odniesieniu do powierzchni upraw i wielkości produkcji, lata 2006-2017 w odniesieniu do wielkości spożycia, a w badaniach Polski na tle świata i wybranych krajów UE, ze względu na wielkość produkcji i powierzchnię upraw owoców jagodowych, uwzględniono rok 2016.

The use of geomatics techniques to evaluate crop water requirement in Mujib Basin

Geomatics was used in this paper to provide efficient tools to create maps and to perform all the necessary analysis about crops (computation of areas, discrimination of crop types etc.) in Mujib Basin (MB), in a timely and cost-effective manner which can’t be delivered using the conventional surveying technology. The use of these techniques allowed the identification and the delineation of agricultural parcels and then the computation of their areas in this basin. This leads to the production of a digital crop map. The obtained crop map beside FAO and climatic data permitted the evaluation of water requirements for crops during the intended period. This study showed the efficiency of geomatics techniques to reveal the illegal use of the underground water resources in comparing with the well production in this basin and to estimate the water requirement to irrigate all parcels during the year 2015. Significant difference between well production and water requirements for the parcels irrigated from underground water is found. This proves the use of illegal water resources for example by digging wells without permission or taking water from main pipelines before metring. This metring helps the control of the consumed water from underground reservoirs.

Molecular studies conducted in chestnut

Chestnut, genus Castanea in Fagaceae family, usually spreads in different regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It is well-known that 13 species of the genus are important in human nutrition since ancient times. Major distribution areas of these species are China, Korea, Japan, Turkey, Southern Europe and North America. Castanea sativa, which also includes Anatolian chestnut, is a native species of the Mediterranean basin. Although the center of origin is unknown, it has been reported that Castanea sativa was spread from Anatolia and to Europe. According to the latest FAO data, total world chestnut production quantity is 2.261.589 t mainly in China (1.879.031 t), Turkey (64.750 t), Korea (56.244 t) and Italy (50.889 t). Chestnut species take place as an important point in genetic diversity but chestnut production is adversely affected in almost all countries caused primarily by chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and root rot (Phytophthora cambivora), so as some other significant threats such as incorrect forestry practices, adversely changing environmental conditions, which recently have increasing importance. These factors still continue to threat the worldwide chestnut cultivation areas and natural population. Therefore, some methodologies have been applied to overcome problems about chestnut cultivation, to conserve genetic variability in situ and ex situ conditions, and to investigate the changes produced by former threats. Some of the conventional methods used in those studies take a long time and they have been complemented by molecular studies with the aim of shortening breeding programs, which include the identification of the responsible genes for nut composition and determination of some chestnut diseases, such as root rot (Phytophthora cambivora), by genetic mapping, but also determining the genetic relationships among genotypes. Molecular studies are also needed for generating gene maps to identify the gene regions that control other significant traits in order to be used in marker-assisted selection. In this study, we present the most recent molecular studies on chestnut in the world.