Family Reoviridae Research Articles

Neurosurgery Residency in India: Effect of COVID-19 on Residency Program

Till August 2020, there was a total of 22,812,491 confirmed cases of COVID-19, including 795,132 deaths, reported to WHO.[1] According to Govt. of India, there was a total of 765302 active cases in India till August end.[2] The condition is worsening every passing day in terms of number of active cases; although there is a high recovery rate, there exists an imbalance between demand of medical fraternity and availability of services. Hence, routine medical services have been halted, and the main focus is toward stemming the Corona pandemic. Coronavirus belongs to the reoviridae family, an enveloped RNA virus with club-shaped peplomeres on its surface and having properties of both acid-labile and acid-stable.[3]

The features of the course of rotavirus infection in children and adults

Rotavirus infection, which is also known as "intestinal flu", belongs to the group of diseases caused by RNA genomic viruses of the Reoviridae family. In terms of prevalence, it ranks second after influenza; the mechanism of transmission is fecal-oral. Once in the body, within several hours the virus leads to damage to the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract, which is clinically manifested in the form of gastroenteritis. Most often, children under the age of five get sick; after recovery, a fairly stable immunity remains. Due to its high contagiousness, the virus frequently causes outbreaks in organized children's groups. The main danger of rotavirus infection is a rather rapid dehydration of the body, therefore, any case of the disease should be under the supervision of a doctor, especially for children under the age of one year. Vaccination is one of the ways to prevent the development of the disease; for this purpose, both monovalent and polyvalent vaccines can be used. In developing countries, rotavirus infection is one of the main causes of infant mortality from infectious diseases. Adult patients are characterized by a subtle course of the disease, which can manifest itself in the form of a single vomiting and diarrhea, a slight increase in temperature. Meanwhile, it should be remembered that even with this course, the patient is an epidemic danger to others.

Reovirus RNA recombination is sequence directed and generates internally deleted defective genome segments during passage.

For viruses with segmented genomes, genetic diversity is generated by genetic drift, reassortment, and recombination. Recombination produces RNA populations distinct from full-length gene segments and can influence viral population dynamics, persistence, and host immune responses. Viruses in the Reoviridae family, including rotavirus and mammalian orthoreovirus (reovirus), have been reported to package segments containing rearrangements or internal deletions. Rotaviruses with RNA segments containing rearrangements have been isolated from immunocompromised and immunocompetent children and in vitro following serial passage at relatively high multiplicity. Reoviruses that package small, defective RNA segments have established chronic infections in cells and in mice. However, the mechanism and extent of Reoviridae RNA recombination are undefined. Towards filling this gap in knowledge, we determined the titers and RNA segment profiles for reovirus and rotavirus following serial passage in cultured cells. The viruses exhibited occasional titer reductions characteristic of interference. Reovirus strains frequently accumulated segments that retained 5' and 3' terminal sequences and featured large internal deletions, while similarly fragmented segments were rarely detected in rotavirus populations. Using next-generation RNA-sequencing to analyze RNA molecules packaged in purified reovirus particles, we identified distinct recombination sites within individual viral genome segments. Recombination junctions were frequently but not always characterized by short direct sequence repeats upstream and downstream that spanned junction sites. Taken together, these findings suggest that reovirus accumulates defective gene segments featuring internal deletions during passage and undergoes sequence-directed recombination at distinct sites.IMPORTANCE Viruses in the Reoviridae family include important pathogens of humans and other animals and have segmented RNA genomes. Recombination in RNA virus populations can facilitate novel host exploration and increased disease severity. The extent, patterns, and mechanisms of Reoviridae recombination and the functions and effects of recombined RNA products are poorly understood. Here, we provide evidence that mammalian orthoreovirus regularly synthesizes RNA recombination products that retain terminal sequences but contain internal deletions, while rotavirus rarely synthesizes such products. Recombination occurs more frequently at specific sites in the mammalian orthoreovirus genome, and short regions of identical sequence are often detected at junction sites. These findings suggest that mammalian orthoreovirus recombination events are directed in part by RNA sequences. An improved understanding of recombined viral RNA synthesis may enhance our capacity to engineer improved vaccines and virotherapies in the future.

Bluetongue Viruses Act as Novel Oncolytic Viruses to Effectively Inhibit Human Renal Cancer Cell Growth In Vitro and In Vivo.

BackgroundThe bluetongue virus (BTV) is the prototype virus in the genus Orbivirus within the family Reoviridae. Recent studies indicate that BTVs are capable of infecting and selectively lysing human hepatic carcinoma cells (Hep-3B) and prostate carcinoma cells (pc-3). This study was designed to evaluate the oncolytic potential of BTV in experimental models of human renal cancer in vitro and in vivo.Material/MethodsFive human renal cancer cell lines, ACHN, CAKI-1, OS-RC-2, 786-O, and A498, were used in this study to analyze BTV replication. These cells were lysed by oncolysis compared to normal control. Xenograft models were used to assess the efficacy and toxicity of BTVs in vivo. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA or two-sided unpaired t tests.ResultsThe results showed HPTEC cells to be relatively resistant to cytotoxic effects of BTVs and exhibited normal growth rate even at high dose of BTVs. Nonetheless, the renal cancer cells showed a remarkably higher sensitivity to BTVs. Moreover, the ultramicroscopic subcellular changes were also detected in the renal cells. The viral particles were observed in all the RCC cell lines, but not in HPTEC cells. Intratumoral injections of BTVs significantly decreased the tumor volume as compared to animals that received no virus treatment. Infection with BTVs significantly increased the percentage of apoptotic renal cancer cells but not the HPTEC cells. Moreover, BTV triggered apoptosis in renal cancer cells via a mitochondria-mediated pathway.ConclusionsThis study for the first time demonstrated the oncolytic potential of BTV in experimental models of human renal cancer. BTV exhibits the potential to inhibit human renal cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo.

Extensive Phylogenetic Analysis of Piscine Orthoreovirus Genomic Sequences Shows the Robustness of Subgenotype Classification.

Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) belongs to the family Reoviridae and has been described mainly in association with salmonid infections. The genome of PRV consists of about 23,600 bp, with 10 segments of double-stranded RNA, classified as small (S1 to S4), medium (M1, M2 and M3) and large (L1, L2 and L3); these range approximately from 1000 bp (segment S4) to 4000 bp (segment L1). How the genetic variation among PRV strains affects the virulence for salmonids is still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to describe the molecular phylogeny of PRV based on an extensive sequence analysis of the S1 and M2 segments of PRV available in the GenBank database to date (May 2020). The analysis was extended to include new PRV sequences for S1 and M2 segments. In addition, subgenotype classifications were assigned to previously published unclassified sequences. It was concluded that the phylogenetic trees are consistent with the original classification using the PRV genomic segment S1, which differentiates PRV into two major genotypes, I and II, and each of these into two subgenotypes, designated as Ia and Ib, and IIa and IIb, respectively. Moreover, some clusters of country- and host-specific PRV subgenotypes were observed in the subset of sequences used. This work strengthens the subgenotype classification of PRV based on the S1 segment and can be used to enhance research on the virulence of PRV.

Bluetongue Virus Infection in Ruminants: A Review Paper

Bluetongue is an infectious, viral, non-contagious disease, caused by the virus of the genus Orbivirus and family Reoviridae, being transmitted by hematophagous vectors of the genus Culicoides to domestic and wild ruminants. The disease mainly affects sheep. The infection is related to the climatic conditions of high temperatures and high humidity, which favor the proliferation of vectors. The disease is characterized by systemic hemorrhagic viral fever, caused by vascular injury as a result of the virus-mediated endothelial injury. The lesions are located in the upper gastrointestinal tract, skin and lungs. The clinical signs presented by the animals are fever, edema of the face, lips, snout and ear; sialorrhea, hyperemic oral mucosa and serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge. The diagnosis is made by laboratory analysis, with isolation of the virus by inocula, embryonated eggs or cell cultures; by identification of the agent; by virus-neutralization or by the detection of specific antibodies. There is no specific treatment. In animals showing clinical signs, prophylactic antibiotic therapy is performed. Vaccination and control of vector mosquitoes are the best methods of disease control.

First seroprevalence investigation of epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus in Libya

Background: Epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) is a vector-borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) is transmitted by Culicoides spp. EHDV is a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family. It shares many morphological and structural characteristics with other members of the genus, such as the bluetongue virus, African horse sickness virus, and equine encephalosis virus.Aims:The purpose of our study was to investigate the epidemiological situation of EHDV in Libya in order to gain some knowledge about the presence of this virus in the country.Methods:In this study, we investigated the seroprevalence of EHDV in Libya, testing 855 blood samples collected during 2015. The samples were collected from domestic ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) originating from 11 provinces of Libya. Sera were tested by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and positive samples confirmed by serum neutralization test.Results:The overall seroprevalence of EHDV was estimated to be 4% (95% confidence intervals = 2.8%–5.4%). Small ruminant seroprevalence was significantly (p = 0.016) higher than that found in cattle. Neutralizing antibodies against EHDV-6 were detected in a sheep from the western region of Libya.Conclusion:This study suggests that EHDV has circulated or is circulating in Libya, and sheep could play an important role in the epidemiology of EHDV, and the virus may still be circulating in North Africa.

Genotyping and Severity of Rotavirus Infection among Infants and Children with Acute Diarrhea

Introduction: Rotavirus (RV) belongs to the Reoviridae virus family and the virion comprises of three concentric protein layers. Worldwide, rotavirus (RV) is the most common cause of severe gastroenteritis (G.E.) among infants and young children especially in those countries which has not launched a RV vaccination program and approximately 40% of hospitalized patients suffering from gastroenteritis were infected with RV. Objective: To determine the prevalence of rotavirus infections, genotypes and degree of severity of its acute diarrhea in infants and children attending the children hospital, at Zagazig University Hospitals. Patients and methods: this study was done on 140 patients admitted to Children Hospital, Zagazig University suffering of gastroenteritis, Vesikari clinical severity score was done and stool sample was taken from patients, which was tested for RV by dipstick method and positive patients underwent genotyping by immunochromatography using PCR technique. Results: Among the studied group 128 patients (91.4%) showed positive results for rotavirus detection by dipstick analysis of stool, while only 12 patients (8.6%) were negative. The Vesikari score of severity ranged from 9 to 15 with median of 12 and its mean ± SD was 11.9±1.3. G3 and P8 were the most types in the examined patients. Conclusion: rotavirus is still the main cause of severe gastroenteritis that requires hospital admission. G3 and P8 are the most detectable genotypes.

Evaluation of antitumor activity in strains of a new rotavirus group in Reoviridae family on a model of transplantable murine melanoma

The purpose was to study antitumor effects of the group K rotaviruses strains No. 228 and No. 100 in the experiment on a model of transplantable murine melanoma.
 Material and methods. The study included 65 С57Black/6 mice with transplantable B16/F10 melanoma and two strains of the Reoviridae family members characterized as rotaviruses, not belonging to the known groups, with the working title “group K rotaviruses (RVK)”. Animals received RVK in “vaccination” (before tumor transplantation) and “treatment” (after tumor formation) modes. Live and inactivated strains were used. RVK were administered intramuscularly as 0.3 ml of virus-containing culture fluid with at least 5x109 viral particles per 1 ml, with a total of 4 injections. Life span of mice and morphological characteristics of tumors were evaluated.
 Results. Injections of both strains increased the survival of tumor-bearing mice by 1.7-1.9 times in 4 of 8 experimental groups, compared to controls. The modes of RVK administration showed some differences: the survival was longer in mice with the “vaccination” mode compared to the “treatment” mode. Morphological changes in tumors were similar after application of both modes and inclued dystrophic changes of tumor cells, formation of extensive necrosis areas, and leukocyte infiltration.
 Discussion. Live and inactivated RVK had unidirectional effects implying its association with immunomodulatory action rather than with a direct lytic effect on the tumor.
 Conclusions. Both studied strains of rotaviruses in the group K had antitumor effect in the model of transplantable В16/F10 murine melanoma in the «vaccination» mode.

VP2 Gene-Based Molecular Evolutionary Patterns of Major Circulating Bluetongue Virus Serotypes Isolated during 2014–2018 from Telangana and Andhra Pradesh States of India

Introduction: Bluetongue disease is an economically important viral disease of livestock caused by bluetongue virus (BTV) having multiple serotypes. It belongs to the genus Orbivirus of family Reoviridae and subfamily Sedoreovirinae. The genome of BTV is 10 segmented dsRNA that codes for 7 structural and 4 nonstructural proteins, of which VP2 was reported to be serotype-specific and a major antigenic determinant. Objective: It is important to know the circulating serotypes in a particular geographical location for effective control of the disease. The present study unravels the molecular evolution of the circulating BTV serotypes during 2014–2018 in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh states of India. Methods: Multiple sequence alignment with available BTV serotypes in GenBank and phylogenetic analysis were performed for the partial VP2 sequences of major circulating BTV serotypes during the study period. Results: The multiple sequence alignment of circulating serotypes with respective reference isolates revealed variations in antigenic VP2. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the major circulating serotypes were grouped into eastern topotypes (BTV-1, BTV-2, BTV-4, and BTV-16) and Western topotypes (BTV-5, BTV-12, and BTV-24). Conclusion: Our study strengthens the need for development of an effective vaccine, which can induce the immune response for a range of serotypes within and in between topotypes.

Viral Vector Vaccines against Bluetongue Virus.

Bluetongue virus (BTV), the prototype member of the genus Orbivirus (family Reoviridae), is the causative agent of an important livestock disease, bluetongue (BT), which is transmitted via biting midges of the genus Culicoides. To date, up to 29 serotypes of BTV have been described, which are classified as classical (BTV 1–24) or atypical (serotypes 25–27), and its distribution has been expanding since 1998, with important outbreaks in the Mediterranean Basin and devastating incursions in Northern and Western Europe. Classical vaccine approaches, such as live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines, have been used as prophylactic measures to control BT through the years. However, these vaccine approaches fail to address important matters like vaccine safety profile, effectiveness, induction of a cross-protective immune response among serotypes, and implementation of a DIVA (differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals) strategy. In this context, a wide range of recombinant vaccine prototypes against BTV, ranging from subunit vaccines to recombinant viral vector vaccines, have been investigated. This article offers a comprehensive outline of the live viral vectors used against BTV.

Effect of mutations in capsid shell protein on the assembly of BmCPV virus-like particles.

Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV) is a typical single-layer capsid dsRNA virus belonging to the genus Cypovirus in the family Reoviridae. The results of cryo-electron microscopy showed that the BmCPV capsid consists of 60 asymmetric units, and each asymmetric unit contains one turret protein (TP), two large protrusion proteins (LPP) and two capsid shell proteins (CSP). CSP has the ability to self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs), and the small protrusion domain (SPD) in CSP may play an essential role in the assembly of viral capsids. In this study, three critical amino acid sites, D828, S829 and V945, in the SPD were efficiently mutated (point mutation) based on the principle of PCR circular mutagenesis. Moreover, a multi-gene expression system, Ac-MultiBac baculovirus, was used to produce eight different recombinant VLPs in vitro. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the single site and double site mutations had little effect on the efficiency and morphology of the assembly of VLPs. Still, the simultaneous mutation of the three sites had a significant impact. The experimental results demonstrate that the SPD of CSP plays an essential role in assembly of the viral capsid, which lays the foundation for further analysis of the molecular and structural mechanism of BmCPV capsid assembly.

Alkaline phosphatase can promote the replication of Bombyx mori cypovirus 1 by interaction with its turret protein

Bombyx mori cypovirus 1 (BmCPV1) is a member of the Reoviridae family which is characterized by its single-layered capsid. Similar with other turreted viruses in the Reoviridae, transcription of BmCPV1 occurs inside the capsid, and the nascent mRNA is released to the turret which consists of five turret proteins (TPs) and located at the 5-fold axis of the outer capsid, then the capping enzyme TP will guanylate and methylate the nascent viral mRNA to produce a matured mRNA. However, during these processes, how the BmCPV1 draws other cellular proteins to facilitate its replication is still lesser-known. Here we used an ELISA to investigate the interaction between ALP and BmCPV1. A co-immunoprecipitation technique was employed to detect the interaction of ALP with the Methylase domain of TP. We further studied whether ALP affects the replication of BmCPV1 inside the cell, results show that reducing the expression of ALP through RNAi reduced the transcription level of the BmCPV1 VP1 gene, which was increased by overexpression of ALP. In summary, our data demonstrate an interaction between ALP and BmCPV1 and that ALP promoted the replication of BmCPV1, and support our hypothesis of the ALP is an RTPase to facilitate the capping process of BmCPV1.

Metagenomic Analysis of the Enteric RNA Virome of Infants from the Oukasie Clinic, North West Province, South Africa, Reveals Diverse Eukaryotic Viruses.

Establishing a diverse gut microbiota after birth is essential for preventing illnesses later in life. However, little knowledge exists about the total viral population (virome) present in the gut of infants during the early developmental stage, with RNA viruses being generally overlooked. Therefore, this small pilot longitudinal study investigated the diversity and changes in the enteric RNA virome in healthy infants from South Africa. Faecal samples (n = 12) were collected from four infants at three time points (on average at 8, 13, and 25 weeks), and then sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq platform. The genomic analysis revealed a diverse population of human enteric viruses from the infants’ stools, and changes in the enteric virome composition were observed over time. The Reoviridae family, more specifically the Rotavirus genus, was the most common and could be linked to viral shedding due to the administration of live-attenuated oral vaccines in South Africa, followed by the Picornaviridae family including parechoviruses, echoviruses, coxsackieviruses, enteroviruses, and polioviruses. Polioviruses were also linked to vaccine-related shedding. Astroviridae (astroviruses) and Caliciviridae (noroviruses) were present at low abundance. It is evident that an infant’s gut is colonized by distinct viral populations irrespective of their health state. Further characterization of the human virome (with a larger participant pool) is imperative to provide more conclusive insights into the viral community structure and diversity that has been shown in the current study, despite the smaller sample size.

NOVEL APPROACH FOR DESIGNING ROTAVIRUS VACCINE CANDIDATE BASED ON TWO PLANT VIRUSES

Rotavirus А (genus Rotavirus, family Reoviridae) is still the main cause of viral gastroenteritis in children under 5 years. Existing attenuated vaccines have serious disadvantages, including the risk of potential reversion to pathogenic form, and side effects, the most dangerous of which is intussusception. Moreover, they occurred to be less effective in developing countries, where the most rotavirus-associated deaths are recorded. The development of an effective recombinant rotavirus A vaccine is an actual assignment; herewith the selection of effective and safe adjuvant is the key point for that. Plant viruses are very promising for innovative vaccine designing; they possess high immunostimulating properties, safe for humans and mammals and can serve as a carrier for pathogens’ epitopes. Here we suggest an approach for rotavirus A vaccine development that involves two plant viruses: Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as simultaneously epitope carriers and adjuvants. Spherical particles (SPs) generating by the heating of tobacco mosaic virus were used as an adjuvant and platform for presentation of obtained in our previous study chimeric recombinant protein ER6, which is an AltMV coat protein (CP) fused with the epitope RV14 (RLSFQLMRPPNMTP) of rotavirus A antigen VP6. Epitope RV14 are able to induce protective immune response and is conservative for the majority of rotavirus A strains therefore its usage gives hope to the successful overcoming of one of the main difficulties in rotavirus A vaccine development: wide serological diversity. In present work, effective adsorption of ER6 on the SPs surface leading to the SPs-ER6 complex formation without loss of ER6 antigenic specificity was demonstrated. Two immune antisera with specificity to RV14 epitope within ER6 were obtained. The first serum was obtained via anti-ER6 sera depletion with AltMV CP and recombinant AltMV CP (AltMV rCP), which was expressed in Escherichia coli but did not contain RV14 sequence. The second serum was obtained by a direct immunization with synthetic peptide RLSFQLMRPPNMTP. These sera were utilized for studying RV14 within SPs-ER6 complexes. By means of immunofluorescent microscopy, SPs-ER6 complexes were demonstrated to interact with both depleted serum and anti-RV14 serum. Therefore, rotavirus epitope was confirmed to keep its ability to interact with antibodies within obtained complexes. Considering unique adjuvant properties of spherical particles and characteristics of selected epitope obtained SPs-ER6 complexes can be thought as a promising component for recombinant rotavirus A vaccine. Moreover, it can be hoped that the suggested in present work approach, involving the usage of TMV SPs as a platform and adjuvant for chimeric AltMV CP, containing pathogen’s epitope, will be useful not only for rotavirus A vaccine development but for designing of vaccines against other pathogens of humans or farm animals.

НОВЫЙ ПОДХОД К РАЗРАБОТКЕ КАНДИДАТНОЙ ВАКЦИНЫ ПРОТИВ РОТАВИРУСА НА ОСНОВЕ ДВУХ ВИРУСОВ РАСТЕНИЙ

Rotavirus А (genus Rotavirus, family Reoviridae) is still the main cause of viral gastroenteritis in children under 5 years. Existing attenuated vaccines have serious disadvantages, including the risk of potential reversion to pathogenic form, and side effects, the most dangerous of which is intussusception. Moreover, they occurred to be less effective in developing countries, where the most rotavirus-associated deaths are recorded. The development of an effective recombinant rotavirus A vaccine is an actual assignment; herewith the selection of effective and safe adjuvant is the key point for that. Plant viruses are very promising for innovative vaccine designing; they possess high immunostimulating properties, safe for humans and mammals and can serve as a carrier for pathogens’ epitopes. Here we suggest an approach for rotavirus A vaccine development that involves two plant viruses: Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as simultaneously epitope carriers and adjuvants. Spherical particles (SPs) generating by the heating of tobacco mosaic virus were used as an adjuvant and platform for presentation of obtained in our previous study chimeric recombinant protein ER6, which is an AltMV coat protein (CP) fused with the epitope RV14 (RLSFQLMRPPNMTP) of rotavirus A antigen VP6. Epitope RV14 are able to induce protective immune response and is conservative for the majority of rotavirus A strains therefore its usage gives hope to the successful overcoming of one of the main difficulties in rotavirus A vaccine development: wide serological diversity. In present work, effective adsorption of ER6 on the SPs surface leading to the SPs-ER6 complex formation without loss of ER6 antigenic specificity was demonstrated. Two immune antisera with specificity to RV14 epitope within ER6 were obtained. The first serum was obtained via anti-ER6 sera depletion with AltMV CP and recombinant AltMV CP (AltMV rCP), which was expressed in Escherichia coli but did not contain RV14 sequence. The second serum was obtained by a direct immunization with synthetic peptide RLSFQLMRPPNMTP. These sera were utilized for studying RV14 within SPs-ER6 complexes. By means of immunofluorescent microscopy, SPs-ER6 complexes were demonstrated to interact with both depleted serum and anti-RV14 serum. Therefore, rotavirus epitope was confirmed to keep its ability to interact with antibodies within obtained complexes. Considering unique adjuvant properties of spherical particles and characteristics of selected epitope obtained SPs-ER6 complexes can be thought as a promising component for recombinant rotavirus A vaccine. Moreover, it can be hoped that the suggested in present work approach, involving the usage of TMV SPs as a platform and adjuvant for chimeric AltMV CP, containing pathogen’s epitope, will be useful not only for rotavirus A vaccine development but for designing of vaccines against other pathogens of humans or farm animals.

Noncanonical Cell Death Induction by Reassortant Reovirus.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) constitutes 10 to 15% of all breast cancer and is associated with worse prognosis than other subtypes of breast cancer. Current therapies are limited to cytotoxic chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery, leaving a need for targeted therapeutics to improve outcomes for TNBC patients. Mammalian orthoreovirus (reovirus) is a nonenveloped, segmented, double-stranded RNA virus in the Reoviridae family. Reovirus preferentially kills transformed cells and is in clinical trials to assess its efficacy against several types of cancer. We previously engineered a reassortant reovirus, r2Reovirus, that infects TNBC cells more efficiently and induces cell death with faster kinetics than parental reoviruses. In this study, we sought to understand the mechanisms by which r2Reovirus induces cell death in TNBC cells. We show that r2Reovirus infection of TNBC cells of a mesenchymal stem-like (MSL) lineage downregulates the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-related kinase pathway and induces nonconventional cell death that is caspase-dependent but caspase 3-independent. Infection of different MSL lineage TNBC cells with r2Reovirus results in caspase 3-dependent cell death. We map the enhanced oncolytic properties of r2Reovirus in TNBC to epistatic interactions between the type 3 Dearing M2 gene segment and type 1 Lang genes. These findings suggest that the genetic composition of the host cell impacts the mechanism of reovirus-induced cell death in TNBC. Together, our data show that understanding host and virus determinants of cell death can identify novel properties and interactions between host and viral gene products that can be exploited for the development of improved viral oncolytics.IMPORTANCE TNBC is unresponsive to hormone therapies, leaving patients afflicted with this disease with limited treatment options. We previously engineered an oncolytic reovirus (r2Reovirus) with enhanced infective and cytotoxic properties in TNBC cells. However, how r2Reovirus promotes TNBC cell death is not known. In this study, we show that reassortant r2Reovirus can promote nonconventional caspase-dependent but caspase 3-independent cell death and that the mechanism of cell death depends on the genetic composition of the host cell. We also map the enhanced oncolytic properties of r2Reovirus in TNBC to interactions between a type 3 M2 gene segment and type 1 genes. Our data show that understanding the interplay between the host cell environment and the genetic composition of oncolytic viruses is crucial for the development of efficacious viral oncolytics.

Comprehensive codon usage analysis of rice black-streaked dwarf virus based on P8 and P10 protein coding sequences.

Rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) belongs to the genus Fijivirus of the family Reoviridae and is an important pathogen that damages rice, maize and wheat worldwide. Previously, several reports have described the genetic variation and population structure of RBSDV. However, the details of the evolutionary changes, synonymous codon usage patterns and host adaptation of the virus are largely unclear. Here, we performed a detailed analysis of the codon usage and host adaptability of RBSDV based on 130 full-length P8 and 234 full-length P10 sequences. Infrequent recombination and frequent segment reassortment influence the genomic evolution of RBSDV. Our phylogenetic analysis found three and four lineages based on the P8 and P10 non-recombinant sequences respectively. We found relatively stable and conserved genomic composition with lower codon usage choice in the RBSDV P8 and P10 protein coding sequences. Both ENC-plot and neutrality-plot analyses showed that natural selection is the key factor that shapes the codon usage pattern of RBSDV. Codon adaptation index (CAI), relative codon deoptimization index (RCDI) and similarity index (SiD) analyses indicated strong correlation between RBSDV and rice rather than maize, wheat or Laodelphax striatellus. Our study provides deep insight into the evaluation of the codon usage pattern and adaptive evolution of RBSDV based on P8 and P10 sequences and should be taken into consideration for the prevention and control of this virus.

Production and Easy One-Step Purification of Bluetongue Recombinant VP7 from Infected Sf9 Supernatant for an Immunoenzymatic Assay (ELISA)

Bluetongue (BT) is non-contagious, vector-borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants, transmitted by midges (Culicoides spp.) and is caused by Bluetongue virus (BTV). BTV is the type species of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family and possesses a genome consisting of 10 double-stranded RNA segments encoding 7 structural and 4 nonstructural proteins. Viral Protein 7 (VP7) is the major sera group-specific protein and is a good antigen candidate for immunoenzymatic assays for the BT diagnosis. In our work, BTV-2 recombinant VP7 (BTV-2 recVP7), expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells using a baculovirus system, was produced and purified by affinity chromatography from the supernatant of infected cell culture. The use of the supernatant allowed us to obtain a high quantity of recombinant protein with high purity level by an easy one-step procedure, rather than the multistep purification from the pellet. RecVP7-BTV2 was detected using a MAb anti-BTV in Western blot and it was used to develop an immunoenzymatic assay.

A Calcium Sensor Discovered in Bluetongue Virus Nonstructural Protein 2 Is Critical for Virus Replication.

Many viruses use specific viral proteins to bind calcium ions (Ca2+) for stability or to modify host cell pathways; however, to date, no Ca2+ binding protein has been reported in bluetongue virus (BTV), the causative agent of bluetongue disease in livestock. Here, using a comprehensive bioinformatics screening, we identified a putative EF-hand-like Ca2+ binding motif in the carboxyl terminal region of BTV nonstructural phosphoprotein 2 (NS2). Subsequently, using a recombinant NS2, we demonstrated that NS2 binds Ca2+ efficiently and that Ca2+ binding was perturbed when the Asp and Glu residues in the motif were substituted by alanine. Using circular dichroism analysis, we found that Ca2+ binding by NS2 triggered a helix-to-coil secondary structure transition. Further, cryo-electron microscopy in the presence of Ca2+ revealed that NS2 forms helical oligomers which, when aligned with the N-terminal domain crystal structure, suggest an N-terminal domain that wraps around the C-terminal domain in the oligomer. Further, an in vitro kinase assay demonstrated that Ca2+ enhanced the phosphorylation of NS2 significantly. Importantly, mutations introduced at the Ca2+ binding site in the viral genome by reverse genetics failed to allow recovery of viable virus, and the NS2 phosphorylation level and assembly of viral inclusion bodies (VIBs) were reduced. Together, our data suggest that NS2 is a dedicated Ca2+ binding protein and that calcium sensing acts as a trigger for VIB assembly, which in turn facilitates virus replication and assembly.IMPORTANCE After entering the host cells, viruses use cellular host factors to ensure a successful virus replication process. For replication in infected cells, members of the Reoviridae family form inclusion body-like structures known as viral inclusion bodies (VIB) or viral factories. Bluetongue virus (BTV) forms VIBs in infected cells through nonstructural protein 2 (NS2), a phosphoprotein. An important regulatory factor critical for VIB formation is phosphorylation of NS2. In our study, we discovered a characteristic calcium-binding EF-hand-like motif in NS2 and found that the calcium binding preferentially affects phosphorylation level of the NS2 and has a role in regulating VIB assembly.