Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV), the prototype member of the genus Orbivirus (family Reoviridae), is the causative agent of an important livestock disease, bluetongue (BT), which is transmitted via biting midges of the genus Culicoides. To date, up to 29 serotypes of BTV have been described, which are classified as classical (BTV 1–24) or atypical (serotypes 25–27), and its distribution has been expanding since 1998, with important outbreaks in the Mediterranean Basin and devastating incursions in Northern and Western Europe. Classical vaccine approaches, such as live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines, have been used as prophylactic measures to control BT through the years. However, these vaccine approaches fail to address important matters like vaccine safety profile, effectiveness, induction of a cross-protective immune response among serotypes, and implementation of a DIVA (differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals) strategy. In this context, a wide range of recombinant vaccine prototypes against BTV, ranging from subunit vaccines to recombinant viral vector vaccines, have been investigated. This article offers a comprehensive outline of the live viral vectors used against BTV.
Highlights
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is a virus classified under the genus Orbivirus, within the family Reoviridae, and is transmitted via biting midges of the genus Culicoides
A similar trend was observed when modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA)-NS1 was used as a booster of ChAdOx1-NS1 in a heterologous primeboost immunization, as immunized sheep showed reduced levels of viremia and lower temperatures than the control group [43]
A Bovine herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4)-based vector was engineered to express the BTV-8 immunodominant VP2 provided with a heterologous signal peptide to its amino-terminal and a transmembrane domain to its carboxyl-terminal region (IgK-VP2gDtm), allowing the VP2 expression targeting to the cell membrane fraction
Summary
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is a virus classified under the genus Orbivirus, within the family Reoviridae, and is transmitted via biting midges of the genus Culicoides. BTV causes severe economic losses that are associated with its considerable impact on animal health, both direct such as weight loss, reduced fertility rate, reduced meat and milk production efficiency, and death, and indirect like lost revenue and trade restrictions [17,18] To minimize these losses, vaccines have emerged as the most effective prophylactic measure to control BT disease and to potentially interrupt the cycle from the infected animal to the hematophagous vector. Live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) have been widely used to control BTV in the past [26] They are associated with teratogenicity, reversion to virulence, viremia that allows transmission to the insect vector, and risk of reassortment events with virulent wild-type viruses, giving rise to new virulent strains [27]. We aim to discuss the different prototypes of viral vectors designed to combat BTV, as well as their progress, strengths, and weaknesses, regarding multiserotype protection, safety, DIVA strategy, and long-term protection in both murine models and most important natural ruminant hosts
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